Faster anaerobic decomposition of a brittle straw rice mutant: Implications for residue management

Rice (Oryza sativa) in Asia is typically grown on submerged soils in intensive cropping systems with only a brief interval between harvest of one crop and planting of the next. Incorporation of crop residues can be challenging because the fallow period between crops is often too short to allow sufficient decomposition. During early stages of anaerobic residue decomposition in flooded soils, plant growth may be inhibited by nutrient immobilization or by the production of potentially toxic organic acids. Straw from a brittle stem mutant of rice (Oryza sativa L. var. IR68) was tested in a 30-d incubation experiment under continuously flooded conditions in a greenhouse to determine if it would decompose more rapidly than the non-brittle phenotype, thereby allowing shorter fallow time between crops. Brittle straw decomposed faster, as indicated by 51% total C loss as CO₂ or CH₄ within 3 weeks of incorporation, compared with 28% for non-brittle straw. However, brittle straw also produced a significantly higher (P<0.0001) amount of formic, acetic, aconitic, propionic, and butyric acids than non-brittle straw. There was no difference in soil N immobilization pattern between the two straw types, or in P or K availability in the soil, perhaps due to the short duration of the experiment. To maximize the potential advantage of faster decomposition of brittle straw in intensive rice cropping systems, it may be helpful to manage water for sufficient soil aeration to mitigate the negative organic acid and methane production effects.     

Decomposition of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic rice residues (straw and roots) in paddy fields

Background, aim, and scope  

Genetic modification of commercial crops may affect their decomposition and nutrient cycling processes in agricultural ecosystems. Intensive rice cultivation under partially submerged conditions (paddy rice) is an important and widespread cropping system, particularly in the tropics, yet there is little data on the decomposition of Bt rice residue under field conditions. We investigated straw and root decomposition of rice modified to express the Cry1Ab protein of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to kill lepidopteran pests, compared with a parental non-Bt isoline. The objective of this study was to assess the possible impacts of cry gene transformation of rice on residue decomposition under intensive rice cultivation with long period of submergence.     

Soil carbon dioxide flux, carbon sequestration and crop productivity in a tropical dryland agroecosystem: Influence of organic inputs of varying resource quality

In view of the significance of agricultural soils in affecting global C balance, the impact of manipulation of the quality of exogenous inputs on soil CO₂–C flux was studied in rice–barley annual rotation tropical dryland agroecosystem. Chemical fertilizer, Sesbania shoot (high quality resources), wheat straw (low quality resource) and Sesbania + wheat straw (high + low quality), all carrying equivalent recommended dose of N, were added to soil. A distinct seasonal variation in CO₂–C flux was recorded in all treatments, flux being higher during rice period, and much reduced during barley and summer fallow periods. During rice period the mean CO₂–C flux was greater in wheat straw (161% increase over control) and Sesbania + wheat straw (+129%) treatments; however, during barley and summer fallow periods differences among treatments were small. CO₂–C flux was more influenced by seasonal variations in water-filled pore space compared to soil temperature. In contrast, the role of microbial biomass and live crop roots in regulating soil CO₂–C flux was highly limited. Wheat straw input showed smaller microbial biomass with a tendency of rapid turnover rate resulting in highest cumulative CO₂–C flux. The Sesbania input exhibited larger microbial biomass with slower turnover rate, leading to lower cumulative CO₂–C flux. Addition of Sesbania to wheat straw showed higher cumulative CO₂–C flux yet supported highest microbial biomass with lowest turnover rate indicating stabilization of microbial biomass. Although single application of wheat straw or Sesbania showed comparable net change in soil C (18% and 15% relative to control, respectively) and crop productivity (32% and 38%), yet they differed significantly in soil C balance (374 and −3 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ respectively), a response influenced by the recalcitrant and labile nature of the inputs. Combining the two inputs resulted in significant increment in net change in soil C (33% over control) and crop yield (49%) in addition to high C balance (152 g C m⁻² y⁻¹). It is suggested that appropriate mixing of high and low quality inputs may contribute to improved crop productivity and soil fertility in terms of soil C sequestration.     

广谱抗真菌蛋白转基因水稻秸秆模拟还田对土壤真菌群落结构的影响

为探讨广谱抗真菌蛋白转基因水稻秸秆降解对土壤真菌群落结构的影响,本文在室温条件下进行田间秸秆还田模拟试验,设不添加秸秆(S)、添加转基因水稻‘转品1’秸秆(S-Z1)、添加转基因水稻‘转品8’秸秆(S-Z8)、添加非转基因水稻‘七丝软粘’秸秆(S-CK)4个土壤处理,采用传统的平板计数法和变性梯度凝胶电泳(denatured gradient gel electrophoresis,DGGE)技术,分析广谱抗真菌蛋白转基因水稻秸秆模拟还田过程中土壤可培养真菌数和土壤真菌群落的变化情况。平板计数结果表明,在秸秆降解的第40 d,转基因水稻秸秆处理(S-Z1、S-Z8)与非转基因水稻秸秆处理(S-CK)土壤之间的可培养真菌数差异显著,但秸秆降解中后期(50~90 d),S-Z1、S-Z8和S-CK之间土壤可培养真菌数的差异均不显著。真菌18S r RNA的PCR-DGGE图谱显示,S-Z1、S-Z8和S-CK在秸秆降解过程中没有显著不同的条带出现,仅有个别条带在亮度上存在差异。DGGE图谱条带多样性分析结果表明,在秸秆降解的个别时间段,S-Z1、S-Z8和S-CK之间在丰富度和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数上存在显著差异,而在秸秆降解的整个过程均匀度指数差异均不显著。对DGGE主要条带和差异性条带进行克隆测序后发现,子囊菌占最大比重,其次为担子菌、壶菌,而在转基因和非转基因土壤处理间亮度上存在差异的条带属于子囊菌。以上研究结果表明,广谱抗真菌蛋白转基因水稻秸秆降解对土壤真菌群落结构的影响是短暂的、不持续的。     

Interactive effect of tillage depth and mulch on soil temperature, productivity and water use pattern of rainfed barley (Hordium vulgare L.)

Soil porosity and organic matter content influence the hydrology, thermal status and productivity of agricultural soils. Shape, size and continuity of soil pores are determined by tillage practices. Thus appropriate tillage and mulch management can conserve residual soil moisture during the post rainy season. This can play a key role in enhancing productivity under the rainfed ecosystem of subhumid region in eastern India. A field study was carried out on a fine loamy soil from 1993–1994 to 1995–1996. Two tillage treatments were conventional ploughing (150 mm depth) and shallow ploughing (90 mm) depth. Each tillage practice was tested with three mulch management viz., no mulch, soil dust mulch and rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw mulch. Soil organic carbon, bulk density, moisture retentivity, soil temperature with productivity and water use pattern of barley (Hordium vulgare L.) were measured.Reduction in ploughing depth resulted in nominal increase in profile (0.0–1.2 m) moisture status, yield, and soil thermal status at 14:00 and water use efficiency (WUE). However, it decreased the magnitude of soil temperature in the morning (07:00). Straw mulch conserved 19–21 mm of moisture in the profile (1.2 m) over the unmulched condition. Both soil dust and rice straw mulching elevated soil thermal status at 07:00 as compared to unmulched condition, but this trend was reversed at 14:00. Straw mulching significantly increased grain yield and WUE over soil dust mulch and unmulched condition. Impact of straw mulch was more pronounced under shallow ploughing depth. Shallow tillage with rice straw mulching is recommended to the farmers to obtain higher level of yield and water use efficiency.     

Soil aggregation and distribution of carbon and nitrogen in different fractions under long-term application of compost in rice–wheat system

Soil organic matter improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, and crop residue recycling is an important factor influencing soil organic matter levels. We studied the impact of continuous application of rice straw compost either alone or in conjunction with inorganic fertilizers on aggregate stability and distribution of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in different aggregate fractions after 10 cycles of rice–wheat cropping on a sandy loam soil at Punjab Agricultural University research farm, Ludhiana, India. Changes in water stable aggregates (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD), aggregate-associated C and N, total soil C and N, relative to control and inorganically fertilized soil were measured. Total WSA were significantly (p = 0.05) higher for soils when rice straw compost either alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers was applied as compared to control. The application of rice straw compost either alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers increased the macroaggregate size fractions except for 0.25–0.50 mm fraction. The MWD was significantly (p = 0.05) higher in plots receiving rice straw compost either alone at 8 tonnes ha⁻¹ (0.51 mm at wheat harvest and 0.41 mm at rice harvest) or at 2 tonnes ha⁻¹ in combination with inorganic fertilizers (0.43 and 0.38 mm) as compared to control (0.34 and 0.33 mm) or inorganically fertilized plots (0.33 and 0.31 mm). The macroaggregates had higher C and N density compared to microaggregates. Application of rice straw compost at 2 tonnes ha⁻¹ along with inorganic fertilizers (IN + 2RSC) increased C and N concentration significantly over control. The C and N concentration increased further when rice straw compost at 8 tonnes ha⁻¹ (8RSC) was added. It is concluded that soils can be rehabilitated and can sustain the soil C and N levels with the continuous application of rice straw compost either alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers. This will also help in controlling the rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.     

Community structure of bacteria and fungi responsible for rice straw decomposition in a paddy field estimated by PCR-RFLP analysis

Rice straw including leaf sheaths and blades put in nylon mesh bags was placed in the plow layer of a Japanese paddy field after harvest under upland conditions and after transplanting of rice seedlings under flooded conditions. In addition, rice straw that was decomposed under the upland conditions during the off-crop season in winter was placed again in soil at the time of transplanting. The materials were collected periodically to analyze the community structure of the bacteria and fungi responsible for rice straw decomposition by PCR-RFLP analysis. The PCR products with 27f and 1492r primers designed for bacterial 16S rDNA and with EF3 and EF4 primers designed for fungal 18S rDNA were digested with four restriction endonucleases (Hinf I, Sau3A I, Hae III, EeoR I). Bacterial communities in the decomposing rice straw were different from each other between upland and flooded conditions, between leaf sheaths and blades, and between straw samples with and without decomposition under upland conditions during the off-crop season. Fungal communities in the decomposing rice straw were also different between the leaf sheaths and blades under upland soil conditions. Score plots of bacterial and fungal communities in the principal component analysis were separated from the plot of the straw materials along with the duration of the placement, indicating the succession of bacterial and fungal communities in decomposing rice straw with time.     

添加不同外源氮对水稻秸秆腐解和养分释放的影响

探究添加不同外源氮对水稻秸秆腐解规律和养分释放特征的影响,为提高水稻秸秆养分利用提供理论依据。该研究采用室内恒湿网袋培养法,设置4个处理：不添加外源氮（CK）;添加尿素（PU）;添加尿素硝酸铵（UAN）;添加石灰氮（CaCN2）。结果表明：水稻秸秆腐解规律表现为0～5 d腐解速率最大,为0.39～0.47 g/d;5～30 d腐解速率较快,为0.12～0.16 g/d;30～150 d腐解缓慢并趋于平稳,腐解速率为0.045～0.050 g/d。与CK相比,添加外源氮可以显著提高水稻秸秆的累积腐解率（P < 0.05）。虽然秸秆累积腐解率在不同外源氮处理间差异不显著,但是不同外源氮的添加对水稻秸秆不同时期的腐解特征有着显著影响。主要表现在0～30 d PU、UAN和CaCN2处理水稻秸秆腐解速率分别为0.21、0.20和0.19 g/d,PU处理比UAN和CaCN2处理分别高5.00%和10.53%;在该时间段纤维素和半纤维素腐解率占累积腐解率的比例分别为63.65%和47.02%,这表明纤维素和半纤维素腐解主要集中在秸秆腐解前期,且PU处理对纤维素和半纤维素的促腐效果最佳。30～150 d PU、UAN和CaCN2处理腐解速率分别为0.046、0.046和0.050 g/d,CaCN2比PU和UAN处理高8.70%;在该时间段木质素腐解率占累积腐解率的比例为82.45%,这表明木质素腐解主要集中在秸秆腐解后期,且CaCN2处理对木质素的促腐效果最佳。由此可见PU处理前期促腐效果最佳,CaCN2处理后期促腐效果最佳。综合不同外源氮对水稻秸秆的促腐效应,建议不同种类外源氮进行配施,以达到最佳促腐效果。     

The effects on N2 fixation (C2H2 reduction), bacterial population and rice plant growth of two modes of straw application to a wetland rice field

Summary The effects of incorporation and surface application of straw to a wetland rice field on nitrogen fixation (C₂H₂ reduction), bacterial population and rice plant growth were studied. Rice straw (5 t ha^–1) was chopped (10- to 15-cm pieces) and applied to the field 2 weeks before transplanting IR42, a long-duration variety, and IR50, a short-duration variety. The acetylene-reducing activity (ARA) of IR42 and IR50 measured at heading stage for 3 consecutive days showed significantly higher ARA in IR42 as a result of the 2 straw application methods. Mostly up to 20 days after straw surface application and incorporation, the dark ARA in the soil, total and N₂-fixing heterotrophs, and photoorganotrophic purple nonsulphur bacteria (POPNS) in the soil and in association with degrading straw were stimulated. Higher bacterial populations were associated with straw on the surface than with straw incorporated. The POPNS counts, in particular, were increased hundreds fold in the surface-applied straw treatment. Straw applications also increased the root, shoot and total plant biomass at heading stage and the total dry matter yield at harvest in both varieties. The data show the potentials of straw as a source of substrate for the production of microbial biomass and for the non-symbiotic N₂ fixation to improve soil fertility and plant nutrition.     

Modeling aerobic decomposition of rice straw during the off-rice season in an Andisol paddy soil in a cold temperate region of Japan: Effects of soil temperature and moisture

Submerged rice paddies are a major source of methane (CH₄) which is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO₂). Accelerating rice straw decomposition during the off-rice season could help to reduce CH₄ emission from rice paddies during the single rice-growth season in cold temperate regions. For understanding how both temperature and moisture can affect the rate of rice straw decomposition during the off-rice season in the cold temperate region of Tohoku district, Japan, a modeling incubation experiment was carried out in the laboratory. Bulk soil and soil mixed with 2% of δ¹³C-labeled rice straw with a full factorial combination of four temperature levels (?5 to 5, 5, 15, 25°C) and two moisture levels (60% and 100% WFPS) were incubated for 24 weeks. The daily change from ?5 to 5°C was used to model the freezing–thawing cycles occurring during the winter season. The rates of rice straw decomposition were calculated by (i) CO₂ production; (ii) change in the soil organic carbon (SOC) content; and (iii) change in the δ¹³C value of SOC. The results indicated that both temperature and moisture affected the rate of rice straw decomposition during the 24-week aerobic incubation period. Rates of rice straw decomposition increased not only with high temperature, but also with high moisture conditions. The rates of rice straw decomposition were more accurately calculated by CO₂ production compared to those calculated by the change in the SOC content, or in its δ¹³C value. Under high moisture at 100% WFPS condition, the rates of rice straw decomposition were 14.0, 22.2, 33.5 and 46.2% at ?5 to 5, 5, 15 and 25°C temperature treatments, respectively. While under low moisture at 60% WFPS condition, these rates were 12.7, 18.3, 31.2 and 38.4%, respectively. The Q₁₀ of rice straw decomposition was higher between ?5 to 5 and 5°C than that between 5 and 15°C and that between 15 and 25°C. Daily freezing–thawing cycles (from ?5 to 5°C) did not stimulate rice straw decomposition compared with low temperature at 5°C. This study implies that to reduce CH₄ emission from rice paddies during the single rice-growth season in the cold temperate regions, enhancing rice straw decomposition during the high temperature period is very important.     

稻草等有机物料腐解过程中酚酸类化合物的动态变化

采用湿润好气培养法 ,研究稻草等有机物料腐解过程中酚酸类化合物的动态变化。结果表明 ,稻草、锯木屑、猪粪均含有对羟基苯甲酸、香豆酸、阿魏酸等酚酸化合物。稻草、猪粪中香豆酸含量最高 ,阿魏酸次之 ;木屑中对羟基苯甲酸含量最高 ,香豆酸次之。稻草、猪粪在腐解过程中生成酚酸化合物主要是香豆酸和阿魏酸 ,木屑主要是对羟基苯甲酸和香豆酸 ;三种有机物料中酚酸化合物总量表现为稻草 >猪粪 >木屑 ,在腐解 2 0～ 30天时酚酸量为最高 ,40～ 5 0天时基本稳定 ,酚酸量为最少     

灌溉方式与秸秆覆盖优化施氮模式对秸秆腐熟特征及水稻氮素利用的影响

以杂交籼稻‘F优498’为试验材料,研究不同灌溉方式[淹水灌溉(CK)、干湿交替灌溉、旱作]下氮肥运筹与秸秆覆盖优化管理模式(麦秆覆盖优化施氮模式、油菜秆覆盖优化施氮模式以及无秸秆覆盖优化施氮模式)对水稻根系生长、各时期氮素积累以及产量的影响,探讨各灌溉方式下秸秆腐熟及氮素释放规律,明确秸秆腐熟与氮素释放规律对水稻生长的影响及其相关关系。结果表明,淹水灌溉和干湿交替灌溉均较旱作有效地协调各时期水稻地上部、地下部生长,促进各时期氮素吸收利用,提高稻谷产量;而水分生产效率则以旱作为最优,干湿交替灌溉次之,但差异不显著。麦秆、油菜秆的腐熟与氮素释放效率最高峰均出现在移栽后30 d,但腐熟量与氮素释放量受灌溉方式与秸秆种类的影响;油菜秆腐熟量显著高于麦秆,旱作明显高于干湿交替与淹水灌溉;氮素释放量则以麦秆为最优。秸秆覆盖优化管理模式也对水稻各生长指标具有显著影响;淹水及干湿交替灌溉下,麦秆覆盖氮肥运筹优化管理模式有效协调水稻植株各时期的生长,促进氮素吸收利用,最终实现产量的增加;油菜秆覆盖氮肥运筹优化管理模式则在整个生育期均对水稻生长表现轻微抑制效应;而旱作模式下麦秆、油菜秆优化施氮模式覆盖均呈现显著的促进作用,其中油菜秆覆盖优势明显,可作为生产中水资源不足的情况下参考。秸秆腐熟量及氮素释放量与水稻根干重、氮素吸收利用以及产量的相关性分析表明,移栽后30 d秸秆腐熟量与稻谷产量、氮素吸收均呈显著的负相关关系(r=?0.27*~?0.29*),而齐穗期、成熟期氮素释放量与产量及氮素吸收均呈显著的正相关关系(r=0.31*~0.59**);同时,秸秆的腐熟量与氮素释放对水稻根冠比影响较大,其中以齐穗期最为显著(r=?0.27*~0.42**)。协调水稻各时期秸秆腐熟量及氮素释放,特别是移栽后30 d氮素释放量是保证实现水稻高产、高效的重要措施之一。     

还田秸秆及其腐解产物的吸水能力研究

[目的]研究水稻、小麦和油菜作物秸秆的腐解规律及其对秸秆吸水能力的影响,为农田秸秆资源有效利用和田间水分管理提供相应的理论依据。[方法]采用尼龙网袋法进行试验研究。[结果]在土壤水分饱和状态下,3种秸秆腐解速率均表现为前期快,后期缓慢的特点。培养结束(110d)时,水稻、小麦和油菜秸秆的累积腐解率分别为67.8%,55.5%和49.2%。光学显微镜结合红外光谱结果显示,与对照相比,水稻秸秆经过110d的腐解,其物质组成、化学结构和形貌特征均发生显著变化,小麦和油菜秸秆变化不明显。腐解0d时,水稻、小麦和油菜秸秆饱和吸水量依次分别为3.87,2.51,3.61g/g。随着秸秆组分、结构和形貌的变化,秸秆及其腐解产物饱和吸水量也有显著性差异。水稻秸秆在腐解15d时的饱和吸水量最大,为5.17g/g,之后其饱和吸水量逐渐下降并趋于稳定;小麦和油菜秸秆的饱和吸水量在腐解5d时达到最低值,分别为1.87,2.59g/g;之后其饱和吸水量逐渐增加。单位秸秆的吸水效果表明,3种作物秸秆在腐解初期的持水量最大,之后随着腐解时期的延长而有所降低。[结论]还田作物秸秆的吸水能力受到还田秸秆质量和腐解时期的双重影响,故在开展秸秆还田(尤其翻压)时,应注意秸秆含水量,还田时期和田间水分管理,降低由秸秆吸水产生的负面效应。     

稻麦秸秆全量还田的产量与环境效应及其调控

秸秆还田是一项土壤培肥、实现农业可持续发展的重要措施,但稻秆还田经济效益低、增产效应不显著以及一些环境负效应,影响了该措施的推广。本文结合本课题组研究工作,综述了国内外近期的相关研究进展,就稻麦秸秆全量还田的产量效应、秸秆腐解特性与环境效应及其调控进行了分析。研究表明,秸秆还田能提高土壤肥力,增加稻麦产量,且增产效应随还田时间延长而增加;稻季麦秸/油菜秸的腐解率在50%~66%,其N、P、K养分释放率分别为42%~58%、55%~68%和92%~98%;秸秆还田能显著提高农田碳固定、减少径流损失,但也增加了稻田甲烷排放、氨挥发以及渗漏的养分损失。提高秸秆还田效益的调控措施有:增加稻麦前期氮肥施用比例,适当减少总的氮肥、磷肥用量,大幅减少钾肥用量;秸秆尽量在麦季还田、稻季采用湿润灌溉可减少甲烷排放。     

Evaluation of soil quality parameters in a tropical paddy soil amended with rice residues and tree litters

Laboratory and greenhouse experiments were conducted to study the effects of applications of rice residue and Pongamia pinnata and Azadirachta indica leaf litters on biochemical properties (extraction yield of humus, composition of humus, microbial biomass carbon, activities of urease and acid phosphatase) of a lowland rice soil under flooded conditions. Bulk soil sample collected from the Mandya paddy fields was used for the green house trials and the laboratory incubation studies. The organic materials were added at three rates – zero, 25.0 g carbon kg⁻¹ (2.5% C) and 50.0 g carbon kg⁻¹ dry soil (5.0% C). Results showed that tree leaf litter and rice residue at 5.0% C rate decreased instantaneous decay constant (k), there by retarded the rate of C mineralization. Carbon contents of HA increased with the rate of C added. Study of delta–log K values and C contents of humic acids revealed that greatest molecular weight of HA was in the pongamia litter treatment, followed by neem litter and rice residue. Grain and straw yields of rice crop in the pot culture study were statistically correlated to the soil quality parameters. Neem and pongamia tree litter incorporation at 2.5% C could be considered for improving soil health and crop yields of rice under flooded conditions; however, application at higher rates significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lowered total dry matter production in rice, despite favorable soil health parameters such as humic yields, microbial biomass – C content and acid phosphatase and urease activity. Among different soil health parameters, microbial quotient was found to be more sensitive indicator of decline in soil quality.     

Influence of straw size on activity and biomass of soil microorganisms during decomposition

This study relates to the pattern of activity and biomass of soil microorganisms due to varying residue particle sizes during incubation. Wheat straw (8 t ha^–1) of different sizes (powdered, 0.9 cm, 1.8 cm, 2.9 cm and 4.4 cm) was incubated for 90 days at 50% water holding capacity in a loamy sand soil of Typic Camborthid. Dehydrogenase activity, an indicator of the total microbial activity, and microbial biomass were influenced by straw sizes during incubation. The peak dehydrogenase activity was recorded 21 days after incorporation of residue and it was highest in the powdered straw and decreased with increase in the straw length. The maximum biomass C build up was observed between 15 (< 1 cm) and 45 (> 1 cm) days after incorporation. The C:N ratio in the soil after 90 days of residue incorporation varied, with increase in straw size, between 12.1:1 and 20.8:1. The results reveal that for faster decomposition the length of the wheat straw should not exceed 1 cm.     

Molecular characterization of methane-oxidizing bacteria associated with rice straw decomposition in a rice field

Abstract

Methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) are crucial to the reduction of CH₄ emitted to the atmosphere. However, it is unclear how MOB in rice straw are affected by straw decomposition processes. In a Japanese rice field, a year-round experiment was set up to study the effects of agricultural practice (rice cultivation/winter fallow), straw parts (leaf sheath/blade) and the site of straw placement (plow layer/soil surface) on MOB communities in rice straw using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and DNA sequencing analyses of key MOB functional genes (pmoA and amoA). Thirty-eight different DGGE bands were observed over the entire investigation period. Principal component analysis of DGGE pattern suggested that agricultural practice is the key factor regulating the MOB communities. Sequencing of dominant DGGE bands showed that: (1) during the rice cultivation period, methanotrophs (particularly type I methanotrophs) dominated the MOB community, (2) during the winter fallow season both type I and type II methanotrophs were dominant in sheath segments placed both on the soil surface and in the plow layer, whereas ammonia oxidizers seemed to dominate blade segments placed in the plow layer. Alignment of diagnostic amino acid sequences of MOB suggested the presence of novel ammonia oxidizers in rice straw in rice fields.     

Carbon dynamics of rhizodeposits, root- and shoot-residues in a rice soil

A laboratory incubation experiment was conducted to investigate the fates of plant-derived C during the simulated fallow period in a rice soil. The ¹³C labelled soil and plant materials were used to follow the residue decomposition and its effect on soil organic C (SOC) dynamics under the conditions of either incorporation into soil or intact root systems. The soils were incubated at 15 °C for 240 d and destructive sampling was conducted at 60, 150 and 240 d. To observe the temperature effect, one batch of incubation was shifted from 15 to 25 °C during the last 45 d (between 195 and 240 d). The results showed that the decomposition of the incorporated residues could be divided into two phases: an initial rapid phase followed by a slower phase of decomposition. The decomposition of straw residues was faster than root residues: with 73% of the straw residue being decomposed, compared with 56% of the root residue over 240-d incubation at 15 °C. The water-soluble organic C and microbial biomass C significantly increased after residue incorporation. The total SOC contents, however, slightly decreased, although significant amounts of straw C (14.2%) and root C (8.7%) were found in SOC at the end of incubation, suggesting that the degradation of native SOC occurred concomitantly. Similar to decomposition of the incorporated residues, the organic substances derived from rhizodeposition of the previous season were mineralized rapidly at first and then slowly. The decomposition of the intact root system, however, was extremely slow. This result suggested that the intact root system conserved more organic C in soils compared with the incorporation of fresh residues. Increase of temperature from 15 to 25 °C during the last 45-days of incubation significantly promoted the residue decomposition.     

Effect of incorporation depth and soil climate on straw decomposition rate in a loamy Podzoluvisol

Several studies on the decomposition of straw using the mesh bag technique were carried out under field conditions in south Estonia. Straw of spring and winter cereals (Hordeum vulgare L., Secale cereale L., Triticum aestivum L.) was compared over different periods and at two depths (5 and 20 cm). Calculation of straw decomposition was based on the ash-free organic matter weight loss. Depending on experimental and climatic conditions the decomposition rate fluctuated from 42% to 75% during the 1st year. The three experimental factors incorporation period, incorporation depth and straw species all had a significant effect on the decomposition of straw. The decaying processes proceeded more rapidly in the upper layer and during the initial months; later there were no differences in decomposition rate between the two depths. During the period without vegetation, i.e. from freezing (December) to thawing (April) of the soil, the decomposition rate was 6–7% and during autumn it was about 10%. Greater loss of straw occurred early in the growing season and in the upper layer. The release of nitrogen from straw was slow and N quantity in straw increased due to microbiological immobilization during the 1st year.     

Decomposition kinetics of straw saccharides and synthesis of microbial saccharides under field conditions

The decomposition of rice and barley straw saccharides under field conditions was well represented by the first-order kinetics model of Y_t=C₁e^?k1t+C₂e^?k2t, where Y_t is the remaining amount at time t, k₁ and k₂ are the decomposition rate constants (time^?1) for the labile fraction (C₁) and the non-labile fraction (C₂), respectively. About 82% of the total saccharide content of the rice straw was in the labile fraction with a rate constant 0.64–0.81, the values for the barley straw being 70–92% and 0.50–0.61, respectively. The non-labile fraction appeared to persist for a long time, with a half-value period of 9–59 months. Barley straw and its saccharides decomposed at a slower rate than rice straw. Much more favourable initial decomposition was observed in a paddy field than in an upland field. Mannose, fucose, rhamnose and ribose were synthesized in parallel with the flush of decomposition of straw saccharides.