Prospects and challenges in utilization of indigenous rocks and minerals as source of potassium in farming

Potassium (K) is one of the essential nutrients required by crops in large quantities; however, its use in agriculture by farmers is less than required in developing countries. This neglect has led to excess mining of K in soils by crop plants and has resulted in a negative balance of K in soils. This loss necessitates the need of more use of potassium fertilizers in agriculture. Rocks and minerals offer a potential fertilizer to utilize in agriculture as source of K. The crop trials revealed that feldspar, mica, glauconite, nepheline and shoenite are good sources of K for crops, especially in highly weathered acid soils. However, some researchers have reported no agronomic benefit of feldspar or granite rock application to crops. Overall the size modification, acidulation, microbial inoculants and preparation of K-enriched compost are the effective techniques to utilize K-bearing rocks and minerals. Very limited information is available on these aspects. Thus, in this review, an attempt has been to consolidate up-to-date information of indigenous rocks and minerals as possibilities for alternate sources of K for crop plants. Moreover, this area of research needs attention to utilize indigenous K sources, which can aid to limit the import and cost, of the establishment of potash fertilizer-based industries in developing countries.     

A contemporary overview of silicon availability in agricultural soils

Our current understanding of silicon (Si) availability in agricultural soils is reviewed and knowledge gaps are highlighted. Silicon is a beneficial rather than essential plant nutrient and yield responses to its application have been frequently demonstrated in Si‐accumulator crops such as rice and sugarcane. These crops are typically grown on highly weathered (desilicated) soils where soil solution Si concentrations are low. Increased yields are the result of simultaneous increases in plant tolerance to a wide range of biotic (plant pathogens, insect pests) and abiotic (water shortage, excess salts, metal toxicities) stresses. Traditionally, soil solution Si is viewed as being supplied by dissolution of primary and secondary minerals and buffered by adsorption/desorption of silicate onto Al and Fe hydrous oxide surfaces. In recent years it has become recognized that phytogenic cycling of Si [uptake of Si by plants, formation of phytogenic silica (SiO₂ · nH₂O) mainly in leaves and subsequent return of this silica to soils in plant litter] is the main determinant of soil solution Si concentrations in natural forests and grasslands. Considerable diminution of the phytogenic Si pool in agricultural soils is likely due to regular removal of Si in harvested products. A range of extractants (unbuffered salts, acetate‐based solutions, and acids) can provide valuable information on the Si status of soils and the likelihood of a yield response in rice and sugarcane. The most common Si fertilizers used are industrial byproducts (e.g., blast furnace slag, steel slag, ferromanganous slag, Ca slag). Since agriculture promotes soil desilication and Si is presently being promoted as a broad spectrum plant prophylactic, the future use of Si in agriculture is likely to increase. Aspects that require future research include the role of specific adsorption of silicate onto hydrous oxides, the significance of phytogenic Si in agricultural soils, the extent of loss of phytogenic Si due to crop harvest, the role of hydroxyaluminosilicate formation in fertilized soils, and the effect of soil pH on Si availability.     

长期施用含硫化肥对稻田土壤养分含量及剖面分布的影响*

在红壤水稻田每年施用等量氮、磷、钾养分条件下,设每年施硫量分别为0、112、604 kg/hm2 3个处理,进行了长期（33年）施硫与不施硫土壤碳、氮、磷、钾、硫等养分含量变化及其在土壤剖面的分布特征和含硫化肥长期施用的生态环境效应的定位试验。结果表明,长期施硫土壤有效硫含量显著升高,并在土壤剖面（0100 cm）上累积; 高硫（HS）、低硫(LS)处理有效硫含量比无硫(NS)处理平均增加85.6%和12.8%; 施硫处理土壤耕层有机质、全氮、全磷含量升高,其中高硫处理土壤有机质、全氮和全磷含量分别比试验开始时增加17.7%、25.6%和250.0%。长期施硫的土壤有机质增加速率显著高于不施硫处理,高硫处理其含量比无硫处理增加了11.5%,说明施用硫肥有利于提高耕层土壤有机质,促进土壤养分累积。在南方红壤硫素养分缺乏的地区,施用硫肥有显著的培肥效应,生产中应重视硫肥的施用。     

不同磷源对设施菜田土壤速效磷及其淋溶阈值的影响

土壤中磷的移动性不仅取决于磷的数量且与磷肥形态有关。了解不同磷源（有机肥和化肥）对设施菜田土壤磷素的影响对于指导科学施肥和面源污染防治至关重要。本文选取河北省饶阳县3种不同磷含量的农田土壤（未种植过蔬菜的土壤、种植蔬菜30年的塑料大棚土壤和种植蔬菜4年的日光温室土壤）为研究对象,采用室内培养试验和数学模型模拟方法研究有机无机磷源对设施菜田土壤磷素的影响,确定无机肥和有机肥源土壤磷素淋溶的环境阈值。结果表明添加有机肥和无机磷肥都会显著增加3种不同种植年限设施菜田土壤速效磷（Olsen-P）和氯化钙磷（CaCl₂-P）含量,但增加速度不同。对于未种植过蔬菜的低磷对照土壤,磷投入量高于50 mg·kg^-1（干土）后,无机肥比有机肥显著提高了土壤Olsen-P含量。对于已种植蔬菜30年的塑料大棚土壤,高磷投入时[300 mg·kg^-1（干土）和600 mg·kg^-1（干土）],无机肥比有机肥显著提高了土壤Olsen-P含量,低于此磷投入量时有机肥和无机肥处理之间没有显著差异。3种不同农田土壤CaCl₂-P的含量所有处理均表现出无机肥显著高于有机肥处理,尤其是在高磷量[>300 mg·kg^-1（干土）]投入时表现更加明显。两段式线性模拟结果表明,设施菜田土壤有机肥源磷素和无机肥源磷素淋溶阈值分别为87.8 mg·kg^-1和198.7 mg·kg^-1。随着土壤Olsen-P的增加,添加无机肥源磷对设施菜田土壤CaCl₂-P含量的增加速率是有机肥源磷的两倍。因此,建议在河北省高磷设施菜田应减少无机磷肥的投入,特别是土壤速效磷高于198.7 mg·kg^-1的设施菜田应禁止使用化学磷肥和有机肥,在土壤速效磷低于198.7 mg·kg^-1的设施菜田应加大有机肥适度替代无机肥技术的推广。     

土壤非交换态钾与结构态钾能够区分吗？

Nonexchangeable K (NEK) is the major portion of the reserve of available K in soil and a primary factor in determining soil K fertility. The questions of how much NEK is in soils and how to quantify total NEK in soils are so far still unclear due to the complicated effects of various minerals on K fixation. In this study, the NEK in 9 soils was extracted with sodium tetraphenylboron (NaBPh₄) for various time periods longer than 1 d. The results showed that the NEK extracted by NaBPh₄ gradually increased with time, but showed no more increase after the duration of extraction exceeded 10--20 d. As the temperature increased from 25 to 45 ^oC, the duration to obtain the maximum extraction of NEK was reduced from 20 to 10 d, and the maximum values of NEK released at both temperatures was almost the same for each soil. The maximum NEK (MNEK) of the 9 soils extracted by NaBPh4 varied from 3 074 to 10 081 mg kg^-1, accounting for 21%--56% of the total soil K. There was no significant correlation between MNEK released by NaBPh₄ and other forms of K, such as NH₄OAc-extracted K, HNO₃-extracted K and total K in soils, which indicates that NEK is a special form of K that has no inevitable relationship to the other forms of K in soils. The MNEK extraction by NaBPh₄ in this study indicated that the total NEK in the soils could be differentiated from soil structural K and quantified with the modified NaBPh₄ method. The high MNEK in soils made NEK much more important in the role of the plant-available K pool. How to fractionate NEK into different fractions and establish the methods to quantify each NEK fraction according to their bioavailability is of great importance for future research.     

Potassium supply capacity response to K-bearing mineral changes in Chinese purple paddy soil chronosequences

Purpose

Purple paddy soils are important for food production. Their potassium (K) supply capacity affects rice yields through its effect on nutrient availability. We hypothesize that changes in soil mineralogy can influence the K supply capacity and the efficiency of K fertilizer. Designing management practices that optimize crop yield while minimizing environmental impacts is a major challenge in agriculture. For this, it is necessary to understand the evolution of, and interaction of, minerals and different chemical forms of K in the soil system.

Materials and methods

Taking advantage of the long-term paddy cultivation history in China, two purple paddy soil chronosequences, one in Guang’an, Sichuan Province (P sequence) and the other in Longsheng, Guangxi Autonomous Region (PS sequence) in Southwest China, were investigated.

Results and discussion

Depotassification is prevalent in both paddy soil chronosequences, which is consistent with the decrease of illite and K-feldspar in the P sequence and with the decrease of muscovite in the PS sequence. K-bearing primary minerals are the long-term stable source of non-exchangeable K (interlayer K) in both chronosequences. Illite in clay fractions acts as the main sources of non-exchangeable K in the P sequence. In contrast, clay minerals derived from muscovite are the main sources of non-exchangeable K in the PS sequence. Clay mineral authigenesis is an important process in the purple paddy soils rich in K-bearing minerals.

Conclusions

The changes in mineralogy of purple paddy soils do not conform to the usual sequence found in the well-drained natural soils. Artificial submergence promotes the conversion of mineral K (lattice-bound K) to non-exchangeable K and enhances the availability of mineral K. The disintegration of K-bearing primary minerals thus controls the K supply capacity in purple paddy soils.

     

共施磷酸二氢钙和硫酸铵对土壤中钾形态转化的影响

Soil potassium (K) deficiency has been increasing over recent decades as a result of higher inputs of N and P fertilizers concomitant with lower inputs of K fertilizers in China; however, the effects of interactions between N, P, and K of fertilizers on K status in soils have not been thoroughly investigated for optimizing N, P, and K fertilizer use effciency. The influence of ammonium sulfate (AS), monocalcium phosphate (MCP), and potassium chloride application on K fractions in three typical soils of China was evaluated during 90-d laboratory soil incubation. The presence of AS significantly altered the distribution of native and added K in soils, while addition of MCP did not significantly affected K equilibrium in most cases. Addition of AS significantly increased water-soluble K (WSK), decreased exchangeable K (EK) in almost all the soils except the paddy soil that contained considerable amounts of 2:1 type clay minerals with K added, retarded the formation of fixed K in the soils with K added, and suppressed the release of fixed K in the three soils without K added. These interactions might be expected to influence the K availability to plants when the soil was fertilized with AS. To improve K fertilizer use effciency, whether combined application of AS and K was to be recommended or avoided should depend on K status of the soil, soil properties, and cropping systems.     

密集化学农业下热带变性土中的微生物种群、活性及基因丰度

There are increasing concerns on the environmental impacts of intensive chemical agriculture.The effect of high agrochemical inputs used in intensive chemical farming was assessed on soil microbiological,molecular and biochemical properties in tropical Vertisols in India.Farm field sites under normal cultivation of arable crops using high inputs of fertilizers and pesticides in chili(Capsicum annum L.,5.0× dose for fertilizers and 1.5× dose for pesticides over normal inputs) and black gram(Vigna mungo L.Hepper,2.2x dose for fertilizers and 2.3× dose for pesticides over normal inputs) were compared with adjacent sites using normal recommended doses.Organic carbon and basal respiration showed no response to high inputs of fertilizers and pesticides in soils of both crops.Labile carbon decreased by 10% in chili soils and increased by 24% in black gram soils under high input farming system.The proportion of soil labile carbon as a fraction of soil organic carbon was unaffected by high inputs.The labile carbon mineralization coefficient(qM_(LC)) increased by 50.0% in chili soils,indicating that the soil microorganisms were under stress due to high agochemical inputs,whereas qM_(LC) decreased by 36.4% in black gram soils.Copiotrophs increased due to high inputs in soils of both chili(63.1%) and black gram(47.1%).Oligotrophs increased by 10.8% in black gram soils but not in chili soils.The abundance of amoA gene reduced by 39.3% in chili soils due to high inputs and increased significantly by 110.8% in black gram soils.β-Glucosidase also increased by 27.2% and 325.0%,respectively.Acid phosphatase activity reduced by 29.2% due to high inputs in chili soils and increased by 105.0% in black gram soils.The use of high agrochemical inputs thus had adverse consequences on biological health in chili but not in black gram soils.In soils cultivated with black gram,the moderating effect of cultivating legumes and their beneficial effect on soil health were evident from the increase in soil labile carbon,lower qM_(LC),higher amoA gene and enzyme activities.Overall results showed that cultivation of legumes permits intensive chemical farming without deteriorating soil biological health.     

二种钾肥对海泡石钝化修复镉污染土壤效应影响的研究

为了揭示钾肥对Cd污染土壤钝化修复效果的影响,为土壤钝化修复过程中合理施钾肥提供理论依据。本文选取不同剂量(含量以K2O计算,分别为0.1 g·kg~(-1)、0.2 g·kg~(-1)和0.3 g·kg~(-1))的KCl和K_2SO_4作为典型钾肥,以海泡石(10 g·kg~(-1))作为钝化材料,通过油菜盆栽试验,研究了两种钾肥在海泡石钝化条件下对Cd污染土壤修复效应的影响。结果表明:K_2SO_4显著增加了油菜的生物量,其增幅为6.06%~10.05%。与单施海泡石钝化相比,在海泡石钝化时施用KCl和K_2SO_4两种钾肥,油菜地上部茎叶Cd含量分别增加16.38%~60.73%和15.62%~25.19%;施用KCl和K_2SO_4对土壤p H未产生显著性影响,却显著地增加了土壤有效态Cd含量,其增幅分别为25.51%~34.65%和18.5%~24.96%。添加海泡石可使土壤的Zeta电位向负值方向移动,提高土壤对Cd的负载能力;但添加海泡石下施用KCl和K_2SO_4均能提高土壤的Zeta电位,降低土壤对Cd的负载能力。等温吸附试验同样表明,添加KCl和K_2SO_4均能降低海泡石对Cd的吸附量,在水溶液中海泡石对Cd的最大吸附量为5.30 mg·kg~(-1),添加KCl和K_2SO_4后吸附量分别降低至2.87 mg·g~(-1)和4.92 mg·g~(-1)。KCl和K_2SO_4显著改善了土壤中K、Mn、Cu和Zn等营养元素的有效态含量。从上述结果可以发现,在海泡石钝化修复Cd污染土壤过程中,施K_2SO_4对钝化效果的影响小于施KCl。     

High‐Energy Milling Improves the Effectiveness of Silicate Rock Fertilizers: A Glasshouse Assessment

Abstract

The effectiveness of intensively milled gneiss and potassium (K-feldspar) as K fertilizers was evaluated through a glasshouse experiment with ryegrass. Plant were grown on two soil types for 12 months. Results show that the agronomic effectiveness of milled gneiss was nearly as great as potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄), but milled K‐feldspar was much less effective because of the relatively small extent of dissolution of K‐feldspar in the soil. The positive effects of K‐silicate rock fertilizers (K‐SRFs) included increases in plant biomass, uptake of K and silicon (Si), and soil pH with increasing application rate of the K‐SRFs. The application of K‐SRFs will be most advantageous for amending K‐deficient soils, and high‐energy milling provides a simple method for manufacturing effective multinutrient SRFs.     

The forms and availability to plants of soil potassium as related to mineralogy for upland Oxisols and Ultisols from Thailand

Potassium (K) deficiency is widespread in crops on highly weathered upland soils under a tropical monsoonal climate. Critical assessment of the forms of K in soils and of the ability of soils to release K for plant uptake is important for the proper management of K in crop production. The relationships between different pools of K were investigated as a function of silt and clay mineralogy for 14 upland Oxisols and 26 upland Ultisols soils from Thailand. Most soils contained no K-minerals in the silt fraction. XRD showed that kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral with variously minor or moderate amounts of illite, hydroxy-Al interlayered vermiculite and smectite present in some soils. For some soils, both conventional and synchrotron XRD were unable to detect illite. Analytical TEM including EFTEM of individual clay crystals showed that clay in the apparently illite-free samples contained very small amounts of illite. Many kaolinite particles appear to contain K which may be present in illite interleaved with kaolinite crystals. A glasshouse K-depletion experiment was conducted to assess the K supply capacity and changes in chemical forms of K and K-minerals using exhaustive K depletion by Guinea grass (Panicum maximum). Potassium deficiency symptoms and mortality of plants occurred on light textured soils, whereas plants survived for six harvests for Oxisols with clay texture, relatively high CEC and higher NH₄OAc-K (exchangeable K plus water-soluble K). There is a strong linear relationship of unit slope between NH₄OAc-K and cumulative K uptake by plants indicating that NH₄OAc-K is a major form of K available to plants. Thus K-bearing minerals contributed little K to plants over the time scale of the experiment and XRD patterns of whole soil samples, silt and clay from soils after cropping mostly showed no change from those for the initial soil. An exception was for a single surface soil clay where a minor amount of smectite was formed from illite by K release to plants.     

Forms and solubility of plant nutrient elements in tropical plant waste biochars

Thailand is an agriculture‐based country which produces large amounts of agricultural waste. Making biochar from this waste can reduce pollution, decrease costs of production, and increase C sequestration. The agronomic benefits of biochar are partly derived from the available plant nutrients in biochar. This study investigated the fertilizer value of biochars manufactured by slow pyrolysis. Pyrolysis temperature and feedstock type affect nutrient concentrations and nutrient element speciation in biochar. The physio‐chemical, mineralogical and structural properties of biochars made from 14 agriculture wastes (soybean cake, corncob, lemon peel, sugar palm fibre, durian shell, tamarind wood, coconut fibre, coconut shell, bamboo wood, rice husk, eucalyptus wood, oil palm fruit, coffee waste, and bagasse) were investigated. The plant nutrients in biochar mostly occurred in crystalline minerals which were present on the surface and inside the cell structure of biochar. Most biochars examined in this research contained calcite (CaCO₃). The presence in biochars of several K‐minerals [archerite (KH₂PO₄), chlorocalcite (KCaCl₃), kalicinite (KHCO₃), pyrocoproite (K₂MgP₂O₇), struvite‐K (KMgPO₄ · 6 H₂O), and sylvite (KCl)] encourages the use of biochar as a K‐fertilizer. Fibre, fruit and wood biochars contained considerable amounts of K, Ca, and P. Sugar palm and coconut fibres also contained high level of Na in halite. This study recommends the utilization of biochars manufactured from sugar palm fibre, coconut fibre, durian shell, and oil palm fruit as fertilizers. With their appreciable contents of plant nutrients in highly to moderately soluble compounds these biochars should be effective fertilizers, especially for use by organic farmers who cannot use any chemical fertilizers.     

Potassium fixation of some calcareous soils after short term extraction with different solutions

This investigation was done to determine the release of potassium (K) from five calcareous soils of southern Iran using 0.025 M CaCl₂, HCl and citric acid during six successive extractions and to study the K fixation capacity of the soils after K release experiment. Mineralogical study indicated that Vertisols and Mollisols were dominated with smectites; while other soils had illite, chlorite, palygorskite and smectite. Results indicated that citric acid extracted more K than CaCl₂ and HCl (137 vs. 111 and 113 mg kg^?1, respectively). The analysis of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and K concentrations in the solutions suggests that the exchange of K with soluble Ca and Mg (originated from dissolution of carbonates by acidic solutions) is the main mechanism of K release, but citrate is able to dissolve K-bearing minerals and release K in slightly calcareous soils. Soils with more illite released more K. Potassium fixation capacity of soils increased after extractions of soils with different extractants from 324 to 471 mg kg^?1, with no significant difference. It is suggested to apply more K fertilizers in K-depleted calcareous soils and use of different solutions for extracting K from soil minerals may be a temporary and short term solution.     

Comparison of potential potassium leaching associated with organic and inorganic potassium sources in different arable soils in China

Potassium (K) leaching is detrimental to the maintenance of sustainable arable soil K fertility,especially in low-K fixation soils.It is not known whether the application of inorganic fertilizers with lower K mobility or crop straw can reduce potential K leaching in low-K fixation arable soils.The potential K leaching of 14 representative arable soils with different K fixation capacities in China was evaluated with or without the addition of K under two rainfall intensities (90 and 225 mm),and then potential K leaching was assessed in relation to five K sources (KCl,K₂SO₄,KH₂PO₄,maize (Zea mays L.) straw,and rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw).Without K addition,K leaching mainly occurred in sandy soils at 90 mm of rainfall and in soils with greater organic matter at225 mm of rainfall.With K addition,the leaching percentage of exogenous K ranged from 0.6%to 11.6%at 90 mm of rainfall and 1.2%to 21.2%at 225 mm of rainfall.The greatest K leaching occurred in soils with fewer K-bearing minerals and lower pH at both rainfall intensities.In most cases,KH₂PO₄,which has lower K mobility,markedly reduced K leaching in both high-and low-K leaching soils at the two rainfall intensities.Maize and rice straw reduced K leaching only in soils with high K leaching,regardless of rainfall amount,whereas more K was leached in soils with lower K leaching at high rainfall intensity.In conclusion,KH₂PO₄ and straw should be preferred for reducing K leaching in low-K fixation arable soils.     

Effect of pesticide application on soil microorganisms

Modern agriculture largely relies on the extensive application of agrochemicals, including inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. Indiscriminate, long-term and over-application of pesticides have severe effects on soil ecology that may lead to alterations in or the erosion of beneficial or plant probiotic soil microflora. Weathered soils lose their ability to sustain enhanced production of crops/grains on the same land. However, burgeoning concern about environmental pollution and the sustainable use of cropping land have emphasized inculcation of awareness and the wider application of tools, techniques and products that do not pollute the environment at all or have only meager ecological concerns. This review covers the types of, concerns about and current issues regarding the extensive application of agrochemicals, in particular pesticides, on a variety of microorganisms integrated in successive food chains in the soil food web.     

Biological and chemical properties of arable soils affected by long-term organic and inorganic fertilizer applications

 Using soils from field plots in four different arable crop experiments that have received combinations of manure, lime and inorganic N, P and K for up to 20 years, the effects of these fertilizers on soil chemical properties and estimates of soil microbial community size and activity were studied. The soil pH was increased or unaffected by the addition of organic manure plus inorganic fertilizers applied in conjunction with lime, but decreased in the absence of liming. The soil C and N contents were greater for all fertilized treatments compared to the control, yet in all cases the soil samples from fertilized plots had smaller C:N ratios than soil from the unfertilized plots. The soil concentrations of all the other inorganic nutrients measured were greater following fertilizer applications compared with the unfertilized plots, and this effect was most marked for P and K in soils from plots that had received the largest amounts of these nutrients as fertilizers. Both biomass C determined by chloroform fumigation and glucose-induced respiration tended to increase as a result of manure and inorganic fertilizer applications, although soils which received the largest additions of inorganic fertilizers in the absence of lime contained less biomass C than those to which lime had been added. Dehydrogenase activity was lower in soils that had received the largest amounts of fertilizers, and was further decreased in the absence of lime. This suggests that dehydrogenase activity was highly sensitive to the inhibitory effects associated with large fertilizer additions. Potential denitrification and anaerobic respiration determined in one soil were increased by fertilizer application but, as with both the microbial biomass and dehydrogenase activity, there were significant reductions in both N₂O and CO₂ production in soils which received the largest additions of inorganic fertilizers in the absence of lime. In contrast, the size of the denitrifying component of the soil microbial community, as indicated by denitrifying enzyme activity, was unaffected by the absence of lime at the largest rate of inorganic fertilizer applications. The results indicated differences in the composition or function of microbial communities in the soils in response to long-term organic and inorganic fertilization, especially when the soils were not limited. Received: 10 March 1998     

From marl to rock powder: On the history of soil fertility management by rock materials

The ancient practice of marling and the recent application of rock powder to soils are interventions into the orogenic energy budget of soils. Both are slow‐release, long‐term fertilizers or better, soil conditioners. Marls and their uses are reviewed by a study of knowledge and practices from the 1st century AD to the 1800s, for rock powders, a review of the recent theoretical and experimental literature is presented. Under pre‐industrial conditions, paucity of energy prevented the wide‐spread use of such materials, today they are marketed as by‐product of industrial operations. For marls and rock powders alike, their positive effect depends to a large extent on the soil matrix to which the minerals are applied, on the cultivar, and the specific type of applied material. Drawing parallels between the two materials, we suggest that the long‐term experience with marls could be used to study the effects of rock powders, as duration of experiments with these is most often too limited to allow conclusions.     

Composition of characteristic soils on the raised atoll Bellona,Solomon Islands

Knowledge is scarce about the composition of soils on Bellona and other Pacific atolls. Such knowledge is important as it is closely related to sustainable land use of these special soils formed on carbonatic/phosphatic materials. Therefore, the micromorphological, chemical and mineralogical composition of samples from genetic horizons in three dominant Bellonese soils (Malanga, Kenge Ungi and Kenge Toaha) and underlying rock (Tanahu) were investigated. Tanahu mainly consists of dolomite, but this mineral is absent in the three soils, which are dominated by phosphate-containing minerals. The Malanga soil is strongly dominated by Ca and P with minor amounts of Al, F and Fe present in fluorapatite, hydroxyapatite and crandallite. In contrast, Al, Fe and P dominate in the Kenge Ungi and Kenge Toaha soils in accordance with a mineralogy consisting of crandallite together with aluminum oxides (gibbsite/boehmite) and iron oxides, mainly goethite with minor contents of hematite. The observed carbonate for phosphate substitution in the apatites and crandallite is important as it indicates an increased phosphate availability in the soils. All three soil samples contain ≤ 1% Si and very little K and Mg. Total contents of essential microelements are considered adequate, but the rather high contents of Sr and U, especially in the Kenge Ungi soil may be problematic. Although the composition of the soils suggests substantial fertility and resilience, the lack of K-containing weatherable minerals (silicate minerals) is in line with a very low K (and low Mg) content and explains why fertilization may be needed to sustain future cultivation of these special soils. Due to a possible low bioavailability of Fe, Mn and maybe other micronutrients at the circumneutral pH of these carbonatic/phosphatic soils as well as the rather high contents of Sr and U, it may be recommended to test element availability using appropriate chemical soil tests supplemented by plant experiments to ensure safe and sustainable (optimal) soil use. However, according to the local farmers, the Malanga, Kenge Toaha and Kenge Ungi soils are considered well suited for production of the preferred crops.     

Cadmium accumulation and partitioning in Ocimum basilicum as influenced by the application of various potassium fertilizers

Potassium (K) is one of the major essential nutrient elements whose application of organic or nano-chelate-fertilizers has received increased attention recently. Cadmium (Cd) contamination in agricultural soils and environment is increasing due to the over-application of Cd-containing phosphate fertilizers. But few studies have been carried out on the environmental influences of K-nano-chelate fertilizers especially on Cd-polluted soils. Therefore, the effects of K-fertilizer application in different rates (0, 100 and 200 mg kg^?1 soil) and forms (KCl, K₂SO₄ and K-nano-chelate) on Cd content and partitioning in Ocimum basilicum grown on an artificially Cd-contaminated calcareous soil (with 40 mg Cd kg^?1 soil) were studied under greenhouse conditions. Cadmium decreased shoot dry weight (SDW), but did not affect root dry weight (RDW) and no consistent trend was observed with applied K. Cadmium increased shoot and root Cd concentration or uptake. KCl and K₂SO₄ increased shoot Cd concentration compared to that of control, whereas K-nano-chelate did not affect it. In Cd-treated soils the mean value of Cd translocation factor (ratio of Cd concentration in shoots to that of roots) decreased by 60% as compared to that of the control. Application of 100 mg K-K₂SO₄ and 100 and 200 mg K-nano-chelate increased the Cd translocation factor by 49, 59 and 112% in Cd-treated soils, respectively. In Cd-treated soils, greater amounts of Cd accumulated in roots. K-nano-chelate could mitigate the adverse effect of Cd on SDW and Cd accumulation in plants grown on Cd-polluted soils, so the risk of Cd entrance to the food chain is reduced (however, in Cd-untreated soils, K-nano-chelate increased the Cd translocation factor higher than other K sources). In Cd-polluted soils KCl was the most inappropriate fertilizer that may intensify Cd accumulation in plants. However, it may be useful in the phytoremediation of Cd-polluted soils.     

Zur Verwendung von Gesteinsmehlen in der Landwirtschaft. II. Wirkung von Gesteinsmehlen als Bodenverbesserungsmittel

The use of rock powders in agriculture. II. Efficiency of rock powders for soil amelioration Five rock powders with different chemical and mineralogical characteristics were investigated in order to test their suitability for agricultural soil amelioration. The highest cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined for the powder of smectite rich volcanic ash. Carbonate rock powders showed highest values for acid neutralization capacity (ANC). Silicate rock powders (granite, basalt) showed the lowest values for both investigated parameters. After some decades, a yearly application per hectare of 1000 kg of rock powder consisting of clay minerals or carbonates could at best successfully improve extreme poor soils, e.g. sandy soils with low humus content, by raising the CEC or the ANC. Rock powders rich in silicium, e.g. of granite, are not suitable to improve soils significantly.