Wildlife laundering through breeding farms: Illegal harvest,population declines and a means of regulating the trade of green pythons (Morelia viridis) from Indonesia

Wildlife breeding farms have been promoted to aid biodiversity conservation by alleviating the pressure of harvest on wild populations. There is, however, growing concern that many breeding farms are being used to launder illegally caught wildlife. Surveys of wildlife traders in the Indonesian provinces of Maluku, West Papua and Papua were conducted between August 2009 and April 2011 to assess the trade of the green python (Morelia viridis), the species currently exported in the largest numbers from Indonesia declared as captive-bred. In total, 4227 illegally collected wild green pythons were recorded during surveys and high levels of harvest were found to have depleted and skewed the demographics of some island populations. Snakes were traced from their point of capture to breeding farms in Jakarta where they are to be exported for the pet trade, confirming the reports of wildlife laundering. Extrapolation of monthly collection estimates provided by traders revealed that at least 5337 green pythons are collected each year, suggesting that at least 80% of the green pythons exported from Indonesia annually are illegally wild-caught. The results of examination of 139 eggshells from five python species suggest that reptilian eggshells may be used as proof of provenance for each individual reptile exported. This method, in addition to the evidence that breeding farms play a significant role in the illegal exploitation of wildlife, allows conservation managers to begin to adequately monitor, regulate and determine the role of breeding farms in the conservation of wild populations.     

Savanna herbivore dynamics in a livestock-dominated landscape. II: Ecological, conservation, and management implications of predator restoration

Conserving African wildlife in human-occupied landscapes requires management intervention that is guided by a mechanistic understanding of how anthropogenic factors influence large-scale ecological processes. In Laikipia District, a dry savanna region in northern Kenya where wildlife share the landscape with humans and livestock, we examined why five of nine wild ungulate species suffered protracted declines on properties receiving the greatest conservation investment. Of 10 alternative causes examined, only an increase in predation, interacting with brief periods of high and low rainfall, was consistent with the timing, synchrony, duration and species composition of observed ungulate declines.The principal factor causing predation to increase was a shift in land use from cattle ranching, under which predators and plains zebras were severely suppressed, to wildlife conservation and ecotourism. This prompted a 5-fold increase in plains zebra abundance, and created a demand for living predators. Plains zebras ultimately comprised more than half the available prey biomass, and supported a substantial predator community, but were not limited by predators. We infer that increasing predation pressure caused predator-susceptible prey species to decline, via mechanisms that included apparent competition.Herbivore dynamics in Laikipia shared features with previously reported responses by prey communities to predator manipulation in Kruger and Serengeti National Parks. All featured one or a few numerically dominant herbivore species, which were primarily limited by rainfall and density, supporting a predator community that in turn limited the abundance of other prey species. In each case, predation had a profound effect, but on only a subset of prey species, reducing the evenness component of prey diversity.The presence of cattle in the landscape may affect predator-prey dynamics in both direct and indirect ways, depending on rainfall. In extreme years (floods or drought), episodic die-offs temporarily subsidize scavenging predators. In low rainfall years, competition between plains zebras and cattle, which negligibly support predators, may indirectly limit predator carrying capacity. Consequently, removal of cattle may favor not only zebras, but also their predators, and further depress predator-susceptible prey species.     

Phylogenetic diversity of endangered and critically endangered southeast Asian softshell turtles (Trionychidae: Chitra)

The intense exploitation of turtles in Asian markets has contributed to declines in turtle populations across the continent. Three-quarters of Asia’s turtles are threatened and half are endangered. A recent workshop on the Asian turtle crisis identified taxonomic studies of widespread species as a priority for research because these low risk species may include unrecognized, narrowly distributed taxa of much higher concern. Chitra indica is a widely exploited softshell turtle (family Trionychidae) found across southern Asia. Individuals from Thailand have been described as a separate species, Chitra chitra, but this has not been universally accepted, and many sources consider Chitra monotypic. Phylogenetic analysis of sequence data from the mitochondrial ND4 gene revealed three deeply divergent, monophyletic lineages within Chitra: C. indica, C. chitra, and a third unnamed form from Myanmar. This new form is probably Critically Endangered, which highlights the importance of systematic studies in determining conservation priorities.     

The spatial patterns of indigenous wildlife use in western Panama: Implications for conservation management

Measuring the impacts of indigenous hunting on neotropical wildlife populations remains a difficult task. Significant insights can be gained by analyzing the spatial patterns of hunting yields. This paper presents a geographic analysis of game captured by hunters in 59 households belonging to five neighbouring villages in western Panama over a period of 232 days. The locations of 1269 game kill sites within a hunting zone of 131 km² were documented with trained local investigators and then entered into a geographic information system with associated attribute data for analysis. Results show a heavy concentration of kill sites around the study communities. Nearly 90% of the total harvest by weight was captured within just 2 km of hunters’ homes. Yet, while several species are captured in large numbers close to home, others are caught closer to the outer peripheries of the shared hunting zone, suggesting that some degree of localized depletion may have occurred. The findings demonstrate the value of mapping the boundaries of hunting zones and game kill sites to assess the impacts of hunting on game species in tropical and other ecosystems and to provide an empirical basis for delimiting conservation zones that balance the use and protection of wildlife in tropical forest regions.     

Overview of the structure and the challenges of Japanese wildlife law and policy

Japan has a variety of laws to conserve and manage wildlife and biodiversity. This article reviews Japanese laws from conservation of endangered species to the fish and game code, and indicates the issues and challenges they face. It then discusses the issues and challenges for management in the application of the laws.The Japanese statute for conservation of endangered species corresponds to the US Endangered Species Act in appearance, but is much more limited in application and scope. There is no legal channel, such as lawsuits, to assure citizens’ and experts’ input. With respect to general species, management of fish and animals are divided; the fish code’s scope is limited to fishery purposes. Control of wildlife damage is the biggest emphasis in the wildlife code. Reform to bring principles of scientific management into pest control has begun, but conventional culling is still the norm.Japan’ wildlife and fish management is distinctive in relying upon local resource users, instead of on a strong regulatory agency. This is a consequence of traditional communal management, and is apparent in coastal fisheries. The depopulation and exhaustion of rural communities, however, makes it difficult to rely on the community for management. In particular, wildlife management, which relies on aging hunters, is facing a turning point. To address these changes, agencies must be strengthened and lawmakers must enact a mechanism to assure sound science in wildlife policy, while working to revitalize rural communities.     

Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica

Worldwide, green turtle Chelonia mydas populations have declined and the species is classified as globally endangered. Tortuguero, Costa Rica, hosts the largest remaining green turtle rookery in the Atlantic basin. Tortuguero green turtles have been hunted since pre-Columbian times. Monitoring and conservation of the green turtle population began in 1955. The long-term efforts provide an excellent opportunity to evaluate the success of sea turtle conservation action and policies. Nest counts conducted 1971-2003 were analyzed to: (1) determine the nesting trend, (2) estimate rookery size and (3) identify events and policy decisions influencing the trend. A nonparametric regression model indicates a 417% increase in nesting over the study period. Rookery size was defined as the mean number of nests 1999-2003 and estimated at 104,411 nests year⁻¹, corresponding to 17,402-37,290 nesting females year⁻¹. A comparison with 34 index populations verifies Tortuguero as one of the two largest green turtle rookeries worldwide. Events and policy decisions in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama that comprise the main nesting, feeding and mating grounds for the Tortuguero population are likely to have had the greatest influence on green turtle survivorship. Conservation efforts and policies catalyzing increased hatchling production and decreased adult and juvenile mortality since 1963 have contributed to the positive nesting trend. The trend demonstrates that long-term conservation efforts can reverse nesting declines and offers hope that adequate management can result in recuperation of endangered sea turtle species.     

Applying the precautionary principle to the issue of impacts by pet cats on urban wildlife

Despite evidence that pet cats prey on urban wildlife and may transmit disease, there is uncertainty over whether they cause declines in wildlife populations. The uncertainty fosters disagreement about whether and how pet cats should be managed, and hampers the implementation of regulations. We suggest that the precautionary principle could be used in this context. The principle mandates action to protect the environment when there is a scientifically plausible but unproven risk, and provides a rationale for immediate intervention to protect wildlife from pet cats while we await definitive studies. In applying a 4-step guide for implementing the precautionary principle, we argue that: (i) current data documenting wildlife mortality caused by pet cats satisfy the precautionary trigger of scientifically plausible risk; (ii) the risk of significant declines or local extinctions of threatened wildlife, coupled with uncertainty in establishing population declines in response to pet cats, argue for strong levels of precaution; (iii) precautionary measures that should be considered include, but are not limited to, restrictions on the maximum number of cats allowed/household, mandatory sterilisation and registration of pet cats, curfews, requiring pet cats roaming outdoors to wear collar-mounted predation-deterrents or compulsory confinement of cats to their owners’ premises; and (iv) the principle’s requirement for extensive consultation in implementing precautionary measures should encourage collaborations involving conservation biologists, veterinarians, animal welfare activists, concerned citizens and municipal officers. Adherence to these steps should assist in choosing actions that have broad support and are applicable to unique local circumstances.     

Sustainability of hunting, population densities, intrinsic rates of increase and conservation of Papua New Guinean mammals: A quantitative review

New Guinea’s mammalian fauna consists of a unique assemblage of relatively small sized (0.5-13.5 kg) marsupial mammals, the hunting of which provides a major source of protein for local communities. However, the impact of hunting and the influence of the marsupial life-history strategies on the sustainability of hunting are unknown. Anthropological studies of subsistence hunting and published life-history data for Australasian marsupial mammals were quantitatively reviewed to determine the major sources of game and annual harvest, and estimate intrinsic rates of population increase (r_max) and population densities. These data were used to estimate extraction versus maximum sustainable production (MSP) and make a preliminary estimate of the sustainability of hunting. There were significant negative relationships between increasing body size and decreasing r_max and decreasing population densities, which were further influenced by phylogeny and diet, and appear very similar to relationships found for placental mammals in Afrotropical and Neotropical forests. The estimated biomass of mid-sized marsupial mammals (923 kg/km²) in Papua New Guinea is also comparable with densities of placental mammals in other evergreen tropical forests. Intrinsic rates of increase ranged from 0.28 for tree-kangaroos (Macropodidae) and 0.29 for cuscus (Phalangeridae), up to 5.14 for bandicoots/echymipera (Peroryctidae). Estimated population densities ranged from 0.4-4.0 animals/km² for long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus sp.) to 150-340 animals/km² for ringtails (Pseudocheridae). Extraction rates of game in three studies averaged 23.5 ± 9.9 kg/km²/year, with cuscus and bandicoot species numerically comprising the main game, although cuscus are the most important source of protein. Rates of extraction in Papua New Guinea versus rates of production demonstrate that long-beaked echidna, tree-kangaroos and cuscus are likely to be hunted unsustainably. In contrast hunting of bandicoots and ringtails was lower than maximum production levels, and the high intrinsic rate of increase of bandicoots means that they can potentially provide a sustainable source of protein, in preference to scarcer and intrinsically slower breeding species.     

BOOK REVIEW

Book reviewed in this articles:
Review of Soil Research and Management in Papua New Guinea . Special issue of Papua New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1998.     

CITES, sustainable use of wild species and incentive-driven conservation in developing countries, with an emphasis on southern Africa

Over 30,000 species of animals and plants that are, or may be, detrimentally affected by international trade are listed on the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). The Convention aims to regulate transboundary trade in species and their derivatives through a system of permits and certificates, and to ensure that such trade conforms to the principle of sustainability. In the developing world, a considerable component of its biodiversity lives outside protected areas where governments have limited potential to manage wildlife. Based on selected vertebrate and plant species, this paper concludes that: (1) use of wildlife in developing countries is more likely to be an imperative rather than a choice; (2) the legal instruments of CITES have limited capacities to ensure that international trade is sustainable; (3) sustainable use of species is best achieved by gaining the support of affected local communities; (4) community support can be maximized by the devolution of ownership or user rights of species from the state to, e.g., the communal level, and the development of effective economic incentive structures to prevent alternative land-use strategies; (5) countries in southern Africa have pioneered devolution of ownership/user rights to the district/communal level; (6) in combination with effective CITES trade controls, trade opportunities, rather than trade restrictions, are most likely to assist in the development of incentive-driven conservation strategies; (7) to avoid negative incentives and to increase awareness of livelihoods, the international CITES community may need to consider whether CITES Appendices I and II listing decisions should be based not only on biological/trade criteria but also on socio-economic considerations, if it is in the conservation interest of the species concerned; (8) a strategic cooperation with the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD) could improve strategies for sustainable trade; (9) while incentive-driven conservation can provide significant longer-term potential for the protection of animal and plant species, it may be most difficult to achieve for species whose high-value products have a long tradition in medicinal use and (10) the conditions under which incentive-driven conservation is most likely to promote sustainable use need to be clearly identified.     

The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea

Crocodilians throughout the world are under very heavy pressure from habitat destruction, human displacement and deliberate hunting for skins. In Papua New Guinea crocodiles of two species are still relatively plentiful and play an important part in the economy of many remote settlements. An attempt is being made by the national government to implement a policy intended to bring about the harvesting of wild crocodiles on a sustained yield basis and provide an economic incentive for conserving wild stocks in their natural habitat. Low human population density and the existence of vast swamplands make this a possibility. In recognition of the policy and the exceptional circumstances, Papua New Guinea has been exempted from trade restrictions imposed by a number of countries under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).     

Designing marine reserves for interacting species: Insights from theory

The primary goals of marine reserves include protecting biodiversity and ecosystem structure. Therefore, a multispecies approach to designing and monitoring reserve networks is necessary. To gain insight into how the interactions between species in marine communities may affect reserve design, we synthesize marine reserve community models and community models with habitat destruction and fragmentation, and we develop new extensions of existing models. This synthesis highlights the potential for species interactions to alter reserve design criteria; in particular, accounting for species interactions often leads to an increase in reserve size necessary to protect populations. Accounting for species interactions also indicates the need to base reserve design and monitoring on a variety of species, especially long-distance dispersers, inferior colonizers, and specialists. Finally, the new model extensions highlight how, given dispersal, source populations outside reserves as well as increases in fished populations after reserve establishment may negatively affect reserve populations of competitors or prey. Therefore, multispecies harvest dynamics outside reserves and before reserve establishment are critical to determining the appropriate reserve size, spacing, and expectations after establishment. These models highlight the importance of species interactions to reserve design and provide guidelines for how this complexity can begin to be incorporated into conservation planning.     

Pelagic longlines: A threat to sea turtles in the Equatorial Eastern Atlantic

Pelagic longlines are widely known to interact with several species of sea turtles, and there is an increasing concern about the by-catch of turtles in commercial fisheries and its impact on their populations. However, information on sea turtle by-catch in the South Atlantic Ocean is scarce, and there are no quantitative by-catch data available on olive ridleys for the Equatorial Eastern Atlantic. In this paper we analyze data collected by observers on board an Uruguayan long-liner targeting swordfish in two areas in the Equatorial Eastern Atlantic: off the Gulf of Guinea and north of Saint Helenaa Island. Specimens of Lepidochelys olivacea and Dermochelys coriacea were hooked or entangled in 26 longline sets. All registered interactions with olive ridleys took place off the The Gulf of Guinea, with captures ranging from 1 to 3 specimens in a single set. The captured specimens, though not measured directly, appeared to be juveniles. In addition, the examination of the stomach contents of one female mako shark showed dermal scutes, vertebrae and the complete head of a sea turtle identified as L. olivacea, allowing us to estimate its curved carapace length. In contrast, adult specimens of D. coriacea were caught in the two fishing areas. The capture of 10 individuals in a single set was recorded. Due to the high rate of sea turtle by-catch observed off the The Gulf of Guinea (1.02 ind/1000 hooks) conservation programs in the area should take into consideration the possible existence of a developmental and feeding area in this zone. Accordingly, longline fisheries in this area should be monitored and mitigation measures put in place to avoid or minimize damage to the pelagic phase of African populations of sea turtles.     

Reconciling the dichotomy between single species and ecosystem conservation: black kites (Milvus migrans) and eutrophication in pre-Alpine lakes

In recent times there has been a growing dichotomy between preservation of single species and broader, ecosystem-based approaches to conservation. Freshwater habitats are among the most highly human-impacted ecosystems. We used a long-term data set on black kites (Milvus migrans), a threatened raptor dependent on aquatic habitats, to explore ways to reconcile single species and biodiversity-driven approaches to conservation. In the pre-Alpine lakes of northern Italy, black kite populations showed medium-low density, extremely low breeding success and widespread declines. Spatio-temporal variations showed density and breeding success to be positively related to ecosystem productivity (as estimated by phosphorus concentrations in lakes), availability of aquatic habitats and grassland, and to be negatively related to extent of farmland and fish harvest by professional fishermen. Fish species richness, used as a surrogate of biodiversity, was highest in one oligotrophic lake, but on average increased with increasing ecosystem productivity (i.e. lake eutrophication). Given expected future declines in ecosystem productivity, kite conservation will be helped by enhancing populations of alternative prey in terrestrial habitats (e.g. through incentives for grassland), and higher regulation of fish harvest. On the other hand, ecosystem management may profit from the use of black kites or other aerial piscivores as indicators of biodiversity and of diffuse ecosystem stress, such as sustainability of fishing practices.     

Beyond parks as monoliths: Spatially differentiating park-people relationships in the Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in India

Parks represent spatially and socially heterogeneous conservation units, yet are often assessed and managed using spatially homogeneous approaches. This paper represents an effort to focus on the larger social-ecological landscapes within which protected areas are embedded, to understand why conservation succeeds and fails in different parts of the landscape. In a wildlife sanctuary in the central plains of India (Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve), we address: (i) how people living within and immediately outside a park differentially impact its resources and (ii) how the park differentially impacts communities living within. Using forest plots, satellite imagery and interviews, we evaluate park conservation by assessing plant diversity, land cover change, forest fragmentation, and attitudes of local communities towards conservation. We find that interior villages have a negative impact on regeneration, but there is a decline in tree species diversity, and increased forest cover change and fragmentation at the park periphery. Interior villages suffer greatly from crop and livestock depredations by wildlife and consider park rules to be unfairly devised. Yet, they affirm the importance of the park for conservation, and are willing to work with park authorities for stricter protection. Park authorities largely focus on resettlement of interior villages, when they should also pay attention to protecting the peripheral areas of the park from severe degradation by surrounding villages. In summary, we find that different parts of the park landscape face different conservation challenges. Taking into account spatial variations in the factors influencing conservation can greatly benefit the management of protected areas.     

Fruit component analysis of south Pacific coconut palm populations

The south Pacific region contains a large genetic resource for the genetic improvement of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.). A study of the diversity in the species was made during 1992/3 using fruit component analysis on a representative sample from 29 distinct south Pacific populations in order to characterise the germplasm present in the region. A large diversity in fruit morphology was found that ranged from populations exhibiting wild-type characters in central Pacific to populations displaying domesticated characteristics in Rennell Island, the Sikaiana Islands, the Marquesas Islands, and in Papua New Guinea. Many populations exhibited fruit characteristics intermediate between the two, which were thought to have arisen due to introgressive hybridisation between the wild and domesticated populations. Continuous variation in fruit morphology was found in these populations, and cluster analysis arbitrarily divided the continuum into discrete groups which were consistent with geographic affinities. Groups were defined in Melanesia, Western Polynesia and Eastern Polynesia. The continuum displayed clinal variation from populations with small fruit and low husk content in the west to large fruit and more husk in the east of the region. The wild and domesticated populations were found in disjunct pockets throughout the area, and did not form part of the clines. Most populations consisted of a wide range of fruit morphology, from individuals expressing wild-type characters to those with domestic-type characters. The occurrence of both wild and domesticated populations within the clinal variation indicates that further exploration should be made to determine the presence of other potentially useful populations. While this activity is proceeding, collection and conservation can proceed using the classification already defined.     

Partnering with local communities to identify conservation priorities for endangered Grevy’s zebra

Setting wildlife conservation priorities and determining how to meet them is challenging, particularly when policy decisions made at large scales need to be informed by a diversity of local conditions. The persistence of species that range widely demands that they coexist with people both within and outside formally protected areas. It is often politically and financially infeasible for one central body, such as a government wildlife agency, to monitor an entire population. Therefore, conservation planners are increasingly turning to local knowledge to inform conservation decisions. Here, we show the scientific and conservation benefits of recruiting and training local community members to collect data on an endangered species, the Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi). We recruited 18 scouts from six community-held ranches in Samburu District, Kenya. The scouts record the location, group structure and habitat of all Grevy’s zebra herds seen in walking surveys. Kernel analyses of scout herd observations indicate areas heavily used by Grevy’s zebra, and the subset of these areas favored by females with young foals. The important areas identified by the scouts closely match those inferred from analyses of GPS radiocollar data. Further, scout data reveals extensive spatial and temporal overlap between livestock and Grevy’s zebra. This overlap suggests the potential for competition between Grevy’s zebra and domestic animals. We argue that scout programs such as ours can generate valuable insights for conservation planning. In addition, such programs have the potential to improve local attitudes toward wildlife conservation.     

Trace element concentrations in tropical marine fish at Bougainville Island,Papua New Guinea

Baseline trace element concentrations have been measured in eight species of marine fish from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. This is the first stage in an assessment of environmental impact associated with mining operations. In general, concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Hg, and As in edible portions of the fish comply with Australian National Health and Medical Research Council public health standards. Two species of shark contained As concentrations in muscle tissue in excess of prescribed standards. Increased concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Cd were recorded in liver and kidney, but Hg and Pb were not preferentially accumulated in these organs. The relationship between the size of fish and metal assay was investigated. Mercury content and weight of fish were always positively correlated but concentrations of other metals were variably correlated with size.     

The UK Environmental Change Network: Emerging trends in the composition of plant and animal communities and the physical environment

This review identifies the major trends in physical, chemical and biological data between 1993 and 2007 at the 12 terrestrial sites in the United Kingdom Environmental Change Network (ECN) and assesses the effectiveness of the programme.Temperature and precipitation increased and sulphur (S) deposition decreased across the network. There were also significant local trends in nitrogen (N) deposition. The decreasing S deposition was associated with increasing pH of rainfall and soils and there was widespread evidence of soil pH showing recovery from acidification.Warm-adapted butterfly species tended to increase at northern, upland sites, consistent with an effect of increasing temperatures. In contrast, carabid beetle species associated with cooler northern and upland areas showed declining populations. The increasing trend in precipitation may account for a decline in ruderal plant species in the lowlands, reversing an increase associated with drought in the early part of the time series.There was no general shift in the composition of plant communities which might reflect rising soil pH. This may reflect the slow dynamics of plant community processes or a distinction between pH trends at the surface and lower soil horizons.The ECN is effective in detecting trends in a range of different variables at contrasting sites. Its strength is the ability to monitor causes and consequences of environmental change in the same programme, improving the ability to attribute causes of change, which is essential to developing conservation policy and management in the 21st century.