A Survey of Organotin Compounds in the Northern Adriatic Sea

The extent of pollution with organotin compounds was investigated in water, sediment and bivalve mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from the Northern Adriatic Sea. Butyl-, phenyl- and octyltin species were quantified after extraction and derivatisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in a total of 99 samples from the period from 2000 to 2006. The accuracies of the analytical procedures were checked by spiking of unpolluted water samples and by the analysis of standard reference materials (harbour sediment PACS-2 and mussel tissue ERM-CE 477). Among organotin species analysed in samples butyltins were the predominant. Tributyltin was found to be present in the highest concentrations, suggesting its recent input into the marine environment. Butyltins were detected at all sites surveyed (sum of butyltins was up to 718 ng Sn L^?1, 3,552 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. and 9,991 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. in water, sediment and mussel samples, respectively), phenytins in much lower concentrations (up to 31 ng Sn L^?1, 326 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. and 442 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. in water, sediment and mussel samples) and to a much smaller extent, while octyltins were not detected at any location. The spatial distribution of tributyltin was closely related to boating, with the highest concentrations found in marinas (up to 586 ng Sn L^?1 for water samples, 1,995 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. for sediment and 6,434 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. for mussel samples). The temporal distribution clearly indicates a decrease of organotin pollution at all sites.     

Occurrence of Emerging Contaminants in Brazilian Drinking Waters: A Sewage-To-Tap Issue

The goal of this work was to investigate the occurrence of emerging contaminants in drinking water of the city of Campinas, Brazil. Tap water samples were analyzed using SPE-GC-MS for 11 contaminants of recent environmental concern. Six emerging contaminants (stigmasterol, cholesterol, bisphenol A, caffeine, estrone, and 17β-estradiol) were found in the samples. The latter two were detected only during the dry season, with concentrations below quantification limits. Stigmasterol showed the highest average concentration (0.34?±?0.13?µg L^?1), followed by cholesterol (0.27?±?0.07?µg L^?1), caffeine (0.22?±?0.06?µg L^?1), and bisphenol A (0.16?±?0.03?µg L^?1). In Campinas, where surface drinking water supplies receive large amounts of raw sewage inputs, the emerging contaminants levels in drinking waters were higher than median values compiled for drinking and finished water samples around the world.     

Organochlorine pesticide contents of tributaries into Blanca Bay,Argentina

Thirteen 1-L replicate water samples from streams emptying into Blanca Bay, Argentina, were taken to study the environmental quality of the surface waters. Out of tests for eleven chlorinated pesticides, five were detected in all the sampling places as both dissolved and adsorbed species: alpha-HCH, gamma-HCH (lindane), heptachlor, delta-HCH, and aldrin. The concentrations were in the following ranges: alpha-HCH = 3 to 68 ng L^?1 and 9 to 239 ng g^?1, lindane = 2 to 42 ng L^?1 and 10 to 542 ng g^?1, heptachlor = 5 to 32 ng L^?1 and 9 to 390 ng g^?1, delta-HCH = 1 to 10 ng L^?1 and n.d. to 87 ng g^?1, and aldrin = 1 to 7 ng L^?1 and n.d. to 33 ng g^?1 for filtered water and suspended matter samples, respectively. Heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin, o-p′ DDD, and p-p′ DDT were found to be present in solution at only one sampling site whereas p-p′ DDD and o-p′DDT were not detected. The analyses revealed a non-uniform distribution of these compounds over the studied area. The higher concentrations of organochlorines were detected downstream urban areas.     

Occurrence of Organotin Compounds in the Aquatic Environment of Greece

The presence of organotin (OT) compounds was investigated in coastal areas (10 stations), wastewater treatment systems (six stations), rivers (19 stations) and lakes (12 stations) throughout Greece, in three sampling campaigns organized between October 1998 and September 1999. A screening method for the determination of toluene extractable organotins (TEOTs) by Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS) was used during the first two sampling campaigns. TEOTs (sum of tributyltin, TBT, dibutyltin, DBT and triphenyltin, TPhT) were detected in most seawater and wastewater samples at concentrations up to 19.4 and 89.9 ng l^?1, respectively, while they were detected occasionally in surface water. During the third sampling campaign, OT compounds were extracted in selected stations using direct derivatization with NaBEt₄ in acidic medium and analysed by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). In seawater, the levels of TBT, DBT and monobutyltin (MBT) were varied between < 2 and 70, 159 and 19 ng l^?1, respectively and tend to decrease with increasing distance from the coastline. TPhT was not detected in any of the samples. Significant concentrations of OT species were detected in influent wastewater, up to 384, 76.2 and 67.8 ng l^?1 for TBT, DBT and MBT, respectively. OTs were mainly associated with the suspended solids and were totally removed during wastewater treatment.     

Measurement of methylmercury and mercury in run-off,lake and rain waters

During one year, samples from eight drainage lakes, seven run-off stations and three deposition sites from various geographical areas in Sweden were collected and analyzed for methyl Hg (MeHg) and total Hg (Hg-tot). The MeHg concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 0.64 ng L^?1, 0.04 to 0.8 ng L^?1, and <0.05 to 0.6 ng L^?1 in run-off, lake water and rain water, respectively. The corresponding Hg-tot concentrations were found in the range 2 to 12 ng L^?1, 1.35 to 15 ng L^?1, and 7 to 90 ng L^?1, respectively. A Hg-tot level of about 60 ng Hg L^?1 was found in throughfall water. The MeHg and Hg-tot concentrations are positively correlated in both run-off and lake water, but not in rain and throughfall water. A strong positive correlation between the MeHg, as well as the Hg-tot concentration, and the water color is observed in both run-off and lake waters, which suggests that the transport of MeHg and other Hg fractions from soil via run-off water to the lake is closely related to the transport of organic substances; and is a consequence of the biogeochemical processes and the water flow pathway. The ratio between the mean values of MeHg and Hg-tot seems to be an important parameter, with an indicated negative coupling to the mean value of pH for run-off water, but a strong positive correlation to Hg-content in fish, the ratio between the area of the catchment and the lake, as well as to the retention time of lake.     

Mercury species in potable ground water in southern New Jersey

Water samples from 78 private potable wells in southern New Jersey were collected for mercury analysis in 1991–1992. Analyses were performed for the quantification of reactive, volatile and methyl mercury species. Relationships of mercury with other water quality parameters were evaluated also. Total mercury concentrations varied from <1 ng L^?1 to over 36 Μg L^?1. The dominant forms in which mercury occurred in the wells sampled were Hg? and HgCl₂?, although methyl mercury was present in some wells and comprised up to 8% of the total mercury in the ground water samples.     

Contamination of the Coastal Waters of Gijón (North West Spain) by Butyltin Compounds

An innovative method for the determination of butyltin compounds in seawater samples based on the use of isotope dilution analysis has been applied to study the contamination of butyltin compounds in the Bay of Gijón (Spain) where no previous data existed. The sampling in this bay allowed the evaluation of mono-, di-and tributyltin (MBT, DBT and TBT, respectively) contamination in very different environmental compartments (harbour, marina, shipyards and enclosed and open beaches). The results showed clearly a strong influence of the type of location, the water renewal and the proximity to contaminated areas on the levels of butyltin compounds. It was found that in more than 75% of the samples the TBT values were found to be higher than the US-EPA water quality criteria of 7.4 ng L^?1 and that in 95% of the samples the concentration of TBT exceeded 1 ng L^?1 which has been reported to be a toxic level for many marine species.     

Arsenic Concentrations in Groundwater,Soils, and Irrigated Rice in Southwestern Bangladesh

Arsenic (As) poisoning of groundwater in Bangladesh has become a major environmental and health issue. The extensive use of groundwater in irrigation of rice has resulted in elevated As in soils and crops. A study was undertaken to determine As concentrations in groundwater, soils, and crops in 16 districts of southwestern Bangladesh. Groundwater samples were collected from shallow-tube and hand-tube wells (STW and HTW) used for irrigation and drinking water. Soil and rice plants were sampled from the command area of the tube wells. Arsenic concentrations were determined using an atomic absorption spectrometer equipped with flow injection hydride generator. Groundwater samples contained <10 to 552 μg As L^?1. Arsenic concentrations in 59% of STW samples exceeded 50 μg As L^?1, the national standard for As in drinking water. Unlike groundwater, most of the surface water samples contained <10 μg As L^?1. Concentrations of As in the soils from the command area of the tube wells ranged from 4.5 to 68 mg kg^?1. More than 85% of the soils contained <20 mg As kg^?1. The mean As concentration in the rice grain samples was 0.23 mg kg^?1, which is much less than the maximum food hygiene standard. A positive relationship was observed between groundwater and soil As, implying that soil As level increases as a result of irrigation with contaminated water. However, irrigation water As did not show any relation with rice grain As. The findings suggest that surface water bodies are a safe source of irrigation water in the As-contaminated areas.     

Influence of the Forest Canopy on Total and Methyl Mercury Deposition in the Boreal Forest

Atmospheric mercury deposition by wet and dry processes contributes mercury to terrestrial and aquatic systems. Factors influencing the amount of mercury deposited to boreal forests were identified in this study. Throughfall and open canopy precipitation samples were collected in 2005 and 2006 using passive precipitation collectors from pristine sites located across the Superior National Forest in northern Minnesota, USA. Samples were collected approximately every 2 weeks and analyzed for total (THg) and methyl mercury (MeHg). Forest canopy type and density were the primary influences on THg and MeHg deposition. Highest THg and MeHg concentrations were measured beneath conifer canopies (THg mean?=?19.02 ng L^?1; MeHg mean?=?0.28 ng L^?1) followed by deciduous throughfall (THg mean?=?12.53 ng L^?1; MeHg mean?=?0.19 ng L^?1) then open precipitation (THg mean?=?8.19 ng L^?1; MeHg mean?=?0.12 ng L^?1). The greater efficiency of conifers at scavenging THg and MeHg from the atmosphere may increase the risk of mercury related water quality issues in conifer-dominated systems.     

HPLC Screening and GC-MS Confirmation of Triazine Herbicides Residues in Drinking Water from Sugar Cane Area in Brazil

The extensive use of chlorotriazines as selectiveherbicides in agriculture and their relatively highpersistence imply that these compounds are now presentin the environment, contaminating surface and groundwater. In European countries, United States andCanada, the drinking water ordinance demands a limitedconcentration of 0.5 μg L^-1 for the sum of allpesticides and 0.1 μg L^-1 with respect to eachcompound, implying on the necessity of sensitive andselective analytical methods. In the present study wedescribe two methods for the analysis of atrazine,simazine and ametryn residues in surface and groundwater collected from the Espraiado Stream watershed,Ribeirão Preto region, SP, Brazil. The HPLC methodused for sample screening was based on herbicideextraction with dichloromethane:isopropanol (9:1, v/v)followed by reversed-phase chromatography (RP-8) withdetection at 220 nm. The presence of herbicides wasconfirmed by GC-MS after ethyl acetate extraction. Atotal of 250 samples collected at different sites fromOctober 1995 to July 1996 were analyzed. Ametrynresidues were detected in 17 samples but almost alwaysat concentrations below those maximum levels recommended by international agencies of environmental control.     

Acid deposition and lake chemistry in southwest China

A water quality survey has been performed on selected lakes and streams in southwest China. The purpose of the study was to measure the concentrations of acidic deposition and surface water chemistry in a region of severe air pollution, forest decline, and relatively sensitive geology to acidic deposition. We show that, although there are some high elevation lakes of low acid neutralizing capacity (ANC<150μeq L^?1, acidification of lakes has not occurred in southwest China due to production of base cations in soil and dry deposition of dust that serves to neutralize acidic deposition. Water chemistry is buffered by high base cation concentrations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺ greater than 300μeq L^?1, and pH values are always greater than 6.5.     

Occurrence and Geochemistry of Arsenic in Groundwater of Punjab,Northwest India

Abstract

Arsenic (As) is a deadly poison at high concentrations. It is mysterious in the sense that people are exposed to it most of the time through drinking groundwater, fortunately at much lower concentrations than the deadly levels, and usually without knowing it. Arsenic content in alluvial aquifers of Punjab varied from 3.5 to 688 µg L^?1. Arsenic status of groundwater is classified into low (<10 µg L^?1), moderate (≥10 to <25 µg L^?1), high (≥25 to <50 µg L^?1), and very high (>50 µg L^?1). In zone I, the concentration of As in groundwater varied from 3.5 to 42 µg L^?1 with a mean value of 23.4 µg L^?1. On the basis of these limits, only 8% of samples were low, whereas 51 and 41% of the total samples collected from this region fall in the moderate and high As categories. The concentration of As in groundwater of zone II varied from 9.8 to 42.5 µg L^?1 with a mean value of 24.1 µg L^?1. Arsenic concentration in the alluvial aquifers of the central plain of zone II is 2 and 52% in the low and moderate limits. In this region, 46% of groundwater sites contain high As concentrations. Arsenic concentrations in the aridic southwestern parts are significantly different from other two provinces. The As concentration ranged from 11.4 to 688 µg L^?1 with average value of 76.8 µg L^?1. Eleven percent of the aquifers of the southwestern region of zone III are in the moderate category, 54% in the high, and 35% in the very high. According to safe As limits (<10 µg L^?1), only 3 and 1% of the groundwater samples collected from zones I and II were fit for dinking purposes with respect to As content. In the aridic southwest, zone III, all water samples contained As concentrations greater than the safe limits and thus are not suitable for drinking purposes. The presence of elevated As concentrations in groundwater are generally due to the results of natural occurrences of As in the aquifer materials. The concentration of other competitive oxyanions in waters such as phosphate, sulfate, and borate also depressed the adsorption of As on the sorption sites of aquifer materials and thereby eventually elevate the As concentration in groundwaters. In groundwater of alluvial aquifers of Punjab, released from sulfide oxidation and oxyhydroxide of iron, elevated (>10 µg L^?1) concentrations of As were widespread because of high pH (>8.0) and higher concentrations of phosphate, borate, sulfate, and hydroxyl anions. It is conclusively evident that geochemical conditions, such as pH, oxidation–reduction, associated or competing ions, and evaporative environments have significant effects on As concentration in groundwater. These conditions influence how much As is dissolved or precipitated into the water and how much is bound to the aquifer materials or the solid particles in water.     

Some aspects of the environmental exposure to chromium residues in Mexico

Research was conducted to determine the environmental effects of Cr residues from a chromite-ore processing plant (Cromatos de México) on the human population living in the surrounding area. The results of this study provided the first quantitative evidence of the transfer of Cr to the atmosphere, soil and subsequently to ground water. The atmospheric concentration of Cr ranged from 0.25 to 0.39 μg m^?3, seven times higher than the level found in the control area. Most of the well water samples (90%) had a higher Cr concentration than the threshold limit value for drinking water of 0.05 mg L^?1. The high Cr concentration in the environment may be responsible for the high concentration of this metal in urine (18.6 ng mL^?1) and hair (4.3 μg g^?1) found in the residents of this polluted area. These results were compared with those of people living in a Cr free zone through statistical analysis (Wilcoxon's signed-ranks test). A significant difference of p<0.01 was found between these two populations. In relation to the average concentrations in hair (1.4 μg g^?1) and urine (2.0 to 6.0 ng mL^?1) considered as normal for a non exposed population in the USA, 70 to 80% of the residents in the Mexican urban-industrial area registered higher values. The high Cr concentration in urine found in workers from the chromite-ore processing plant show the lack of an efficient pollution control system. Therefore the Cr levels found in urine and hair can be used as indicators of environmental exposure.     

Metal concentrations in the ground water of the Ouachita Mountains,Arkansas, U.S.A.

Ninety-one ground water samples (predominantly from springs) in two mineralized areas of the Ouachita Mountains in west-central Arkansas, were analyzed for Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, Pb, Hg, Sb, Sr, Ba, Ca, and Li. These areas contain Mn, barite, strontianite, cinnabar, stibnite and scattered Pb-Zn mineralization, Cumulative frequency curves were used to determine the threshold and anomalous concentrations for each element in the two areas. These values were, in general, higher in the ground water from the more mineralized area for several of the base metals, but most notably for Mn and Fe, the principal metals in the Mn oxide minerals. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1976) criteria for Fe (300 μg L ^?1) and Mn (50 μg L^?1) in drinking water were exceeded, respectively, in 34% and 30% of the springs in Area I, and 13% and 23% in Area II. One spring exceeded the EPA Hg criterion (2 μg L^?1) and 3 springs exceeded the 50 μg L^?1 criterion for Pb. In spite of the large number of anomalous Ba concentrations, the highest concentration of Ba was 930 μg L^?1 (EPA criterion 1000 μg L ^?1).     

Chemistry differences in two streams entering an acidic lake in the Adirondack Mountains,New York (U.S.A.)

Solution chemistry was measured in two major inlets, lake water column, lake outlet, and soils of the South Lake watershed in the Adirondack Mountains, New York. The east inlet had greater concentrations of H⁺, sulfate-S, and Al and smaller concentrations of base cations and silica than the west inlet (70, 116, 25, 90, 64 and 4, 99, 8, 228, 148 μeq L^?1 of H⁺ and sulfate-S, μmol L^?1 Al, μeq L^?1 total base cations and μmol L^?1 silica in east and west inlets, respectively). Concentrations of base cations in C horizon soil solutions (157 μeq L^?1 total base cations) were smaller and greater than west and east inlets, respectively. This suggests that water flowing into the west inlet contacted deeper mineral layers, whereas water reaching the east inlet did not. Lake and lake outlet concentrations were also intermediate between the two inlets, and the lake was acidic (pH 4.9 to 5.1) with relatively high total monomeric Al concentrations (8 to 9 μmol Al L^?1). The east inlet also had greater DOC concentrations than the west (0.38 and 0.24 μmol C L^?1, respectively), again indicating that soil solutions entering the east inlet passed through the forest floor but had more limited contact with deeper mineral layers in comparison with the west inlet. Differences between the streams are hypothesized to be related to contact of percolating solutions with mineral soil horizons and underlying glacial till, which provides neutralization of acidic solutions and releases base cations. This work indicates that processes controlling surface water acidification can be spatially quite variable over a small watershed.     

Fish species distribution and water chemistry in Nova Scotia lakes

During the summers of 1981-1984, 19,714 fish (23 species) were netted in 234 Nova Scotian lakes. Surface and mid-depth water samples were also analyzed for major ions, metals, and DOC. Lakewater pH varied from 4.4 to 7.7, including eight lakes which produced no fish in standard 23-hr net sets. Fish data were partitioned into 6 pH groupings for analysis. Stepwise multiple regressions of fish species vs. H+, S0₄,A1, Fe, and Mn showed little predictive power. Productive lakes ranged up to 530 μg L^?1 Al, 1680 pg L^?1 Fe, and 836 μg L^?1 Mn. Apart from pH, fish distribution and abundance showed no significant relationships with water chemistry data. We note, however, that the more acidic lakes had fewer species of fish.     

Dissipation of 2,4-D glyphosate and paraquat in river water

Dissipation of herbicides in river water was determined by adding different concentrations of 2,4-D, glyphosate and paraquat to samples of river water. A small variation of dissipation of radioactivity for¹⁴C-2,4-D in higher and lower concentrations and in different samples of river water was found. But about half the radioactivity disappeared from water samples of original glyphosate concentration at 100 mg L^?1 and, in the case of 100 μg L^?1, only 11 to 22% remained in the samples of river water after 56 d incubation except the sample from Hsin-Tien River. More than 80% of paraquat remained in water samples. Determination of octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) showed a large difference in amounts of 2,4-D partitioned in water phase at different pH values, 97.4% at the higher pH of ionic state and 5.2% at the lower pH of molecular state, implying that pH value of water might affect the bioaccumulation process of 2,4-D. The result showed that 95.0% of glyphosate present in water phase in ionic form (higher pH) and 82.3% in molecular form (lower pH), indicating that glyphosate might have no affect on the biomagnification, since most of glyphosate could be excreted with water by organisms.     

Leaching of 2,4-D and dicamba from home lawns

Leaching of the broadleaf herbicides 2,4-D and dicamba from home lawns was monitored with ceramic extraction plates placed at a 0.2 m depth beneath undisturbed sod. The site was located on a Merrimac sandy loam. Four treatments, consisting of two rates of herbicide applications coupled with two irrigation regimes. were evaluated on 12 plots. The low herbicide rate consisted of 1.1 and 0.1 kg ha^?1 yr^?1 of 2,4-D and dicamba, respectively. The high rate used was 3.3 and 0.33 kg ha^?1 yr^?1 of 2,4-D and dicamba applied in three equal applications. Irrigation treatments were (1) minimal irrigation to avoid drought stress and percolation from the root zone and (2) overwatering at 37.5 mm week^?1. Geometric mean concentra tions of 2,4-D ranged from 0.55 to 0.87 μg L^?1 compared to 0.26 to 0.55 μg L^?1 for dicamba. The low application-minimum irrigation treatment generated significantly higher concentrations than the other treatments for both herbicides. The low concentrations observed for both herbicides suggest that excellent degradation conditions exist in the root zone of turfgrass during the summer months when application occurs.     

Impacts of coal pile leachate on a forested wetland in South Carolina

This study was conducted to: (1) determine the probable cause of several areas of stressed and dead vegetation adjacent to a 15-yr-old reject coal pile in western South Carolina and (2) identify the factors limiting successful revegetation of the site. Data from an earlier study suggested that solution pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC), and/or elevated trace element concentrations may have contributed to the stress and dieback. Soil water in the two vegetation kill zones is saline (TDS>10 000 mg L^?1 and EC>4 dS m^?1), highly acidic (soil pH<3.5), and high in Al and Mn (Al conc.>200 mg L^?1 and Mn conc.>10 mg L^?1). Soil water in areas of sparse vegetation is brackish (TDS>1000 mg L^?1 and EC>2 dS m^?1) and acidic (soil pH<4.0), with elevated Al values (> 40.5 mg Al L^?1). Tissue samples were collected from volunteer loblolly pine (Pinns taeda L.) seedlings growing in the study area and analyzed for essential and non-essential elements. Seedling tissues did not contain abnormal concentrations of nutrients or trace elements. The strong relationship between the zones of vegetation stress and dieback and solution pH and soluble salt concentrations, and the lack of excessive metal accumulations by tree seedlings which have become established in the less toxic portions of the study area, suggest that low solution pH and high soluble salts are more important factors limiting plant establishment on this site than solution metal concentrations. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of site hydrology in determining the impacts of coal waste disposal on adjacent ecosystems.     

Variations in concentrations of N and P forms in leachates from dried soils rewetted at different rates

The rate at which dried soils are rewetted can affect the quantities and forms of nutrients in leachates. Both dried and moist replicated (n?=?3) samples of two contrasting grassland soil types (clayey vs brown earth) were irrigated during laboratory experiments with identical total amounts of water, but at different rates, ranging from 0 h, increasing by 30-min increments up to 4 h, and additionally a 24-h rewetting rate. Total P concentrations in leachates from dried samples of both soils generally decreased as rewetting rate increased, ranging from 2,923?±?589 μg P L^?1 (0.5 h rewetting rate) to 731?±?46.0 μg P L^?1 (24 h, clayey soil) and 1,588?±?45.1 μg P L^?1 (0.5 h) to 439?±?25.5 μg P L^?1 (24 h brown earth). Similar patterns in concentrations occurred for molybdate reactive P (MRP), although concentrations were generally an order of magnitude lower, indicating that the majority of the leached P was probably organic. The moist brown earth leached relatively high concentrations of MRP (maximum 232?±?10.6 μg P L^?1, 0.5 h), unlike the moist clayey soil (maximum 20.4?±?10.0 μg P L^?1, 0 h). The total oxidised N concentrations in leachates were less affected by rewetting rate, although longer rewetting rates resulted in decreased concentrations in leachates from the dried samples of both soils. The difference in responses to rewetting rates of the two soils is probably due to differences in the fate of the microbial biomass and adsorption properties in the soils. Results show that soil moisture could be an important factor in regulating nutrient losses and availability, especially under changing patterns of rainfall predicted by future climate change scenarios.