Three decades of urbanization: Estimating the impact of land-cover change on stream salamander populations

Urbanization has become the dominant form of landscape disturbance in parts of the United States. Small streams in the Piedmont region of the eastern United States support high densities of salamanders and are often the first habitats to be affected by landscape-altering factors such as urbanization. We used US Geological Survey land cover data from 1972 to 2000 and a relation between stream salamanders and land cover, established from recent research, to estimate the impact of contemporary land-cover change on the abundance of stream salamanders near Davidson, North Carolina, a Piedmont locale that has experienced rapid urbanization during this time. Our analysis indicates that southern two-lined salamander (Eurycea cirrigera) populations have decreased from 32% to 44% while northern dusky salamanders (Desmognathus fuscus) have decreased from 21% to 30% over the last three decades. Our results suggest that the widespread conversion of forest to urban land in small catchments has likely resulted in a substantial decline of populations of stream salamanders and could have serious effects on stream ecosystems.     

Population decline of northern dusky salamanders at Acadia National Park, Maine, USA

We investigated and reviewed the current and historic distribution of northern dusky salamanders (Desmognathus fuscus fuscus) in Acadia National Park (ANP), Maine, USA during 1938-2003. Historical data indicate that northern dusky salamanders were once widespread and common in ANP. We conducted intensive surveys for stream salamanders during 2000-2003 and observed only two adult northern dusky salamanders on one stream. No eggs or larvae were observed. Although the cause of the observed population decline is unknown, we identify multiple potential stressors including stocking of predatory fishes, fungal pathogens, substrate embeddedness, and widespread pollution (i.e., from atmospheric pollutants) of surface waters at ANP. Our data suggest that ANP streams may no longer be suitable for northern dusky salamanders. This investigation is the first to document the decline of a stream dwelling amphibian species in a national park (i.e., areas that are not subject to obvious habitat loss or major changes in land use) with widespread mercury contamination of its surface waters.     

Relationship of biotic and abiotic factors to recruitment patterns in Margaritifera margaritifera

We investigated relationships of biotic and abiotic factors to recruitment patterns of the endangered freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) in 10 Swedish streams. We found that the maximum proportion of gravid mussels did not differ between streams with and without recent recruitment. Moreover, the mean glochidial load on trout (Salmo trutta), which was positively related to adult mussel density, did not differ significantly between these stream types. Thus, the larval stages of the freshwater pearl mussel were not related to recruitment failure. Instead, recruitment is probably hindered at the next stage in the life history of the mussels, the benthic stage, and may be related to sedimentation as turbidity was four times greater in streams lacking recent recruitment than in streams with recent recruitment. Furthermore, we found that juvenile mussel density was positively related to the number of glochidial infections per stream area in streams with ongoing recruitment, indicating that successful recruitment in these streams may depend on both mussel and trout density. Future research should thus examine biotic interactions between mussels and trout as well as the effects of sedimentation on benthic-living mussels.     

Altered drying regime controls distribution of endangered salamanders and introduced predators

Introduction of invasive species has been implicated in the decline of many native species. However, the mechanisms that underlie successful invasion and species replacement are often poorly understood. We tested the hypothesis that disruption of the natural disturbance regime can facilitate invasion of habitats, resulting in the exclusion of native species. In Arizona’s San Rafael Valley, cattle ponds designed to hold water year-round have replaced seasonal marshes, and this altered drying regime has facilitated invasion by disturbance-intolerant fish and bullfrogs that negatively affect native Sonoran tiger salamanders. We investigated the relationships among pond drying regime, presence of introduced fish and bullfrogs, and presence of tiger salamander populations in 42 ponds. Both fish and breeding bullfrog populations disappeared following pond drying. Pond drying in cattle ponds negatively affected salamanders, but not to the same extent that it affected fish and bullfrogs. Metamorphosed bullfrogs ate salamander larvae in laboratory and field experiments, and the risk of local extinction among salamander populations was increased by introduced fish. Once fish eliminated salamanders from an aquatic habitat, salamanders seldom reappeared unless fish were killed by drying. Simple models were developed to predict change in salamander, fish, and bullfrog distributions with changes in cattle pond drying frequency. The models show that decreases in pond drying frequency could negatively affect salamanders by leading to a community dominated by disturbance-intolerant fish and bullfrogs, but increased drying frequency could negatively affect salamander populations by preventing salamander breeding. These results suggest that manipulation or restoration of disturbance regimes may be a powerful tool in managing for native species threatened by biotic invasions.     

Climate change is linked to long-term decline in a stream salamander

Amphibian declines have been documented worldwide and several have been linked to climate change, but the long-term data needed to detect declines are largely restricted to pond-breeding species. This limits our knowledge of population trends in other major groups of amphibians, including stream salamanders, which have their greatest diversity in North America. I hypothesized that increasing air temperature and precipitation in northeastern North America caused abundance of the stream salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in a New Hampshire population to decline between 1999 and 2010. I found a significant decline in abundance of G. porphyriticus adults over this 12-year period, and no trend in larval abundance. Adult abundance was negatively related to annual precipitation, which is predicted to increase further in the Northeast due to climate change. Analysis of a 6-year capture–mark–recapture data set for the same population showed no temporal variation in larval and adult detectability, validating the abundance data, and no variation in larval and adult survival. However, survival during metamorphosis from the larval to adult stage declined dramatically. These results suggest that increasing precipitation is causing a decline in adult recruitment, which, if it persists, will lead to local extinction. A likely mechanism for the decline in adult recruitment is mortality of metamorphosing individuals during spring and fall floods, which have increased in volume and frequency with the increase in precipitation. More broadly, this study presents strong evidence that the amphibian decline crisis extends to North America’s stream salamanders, and shows the critical need to collect population data on these species.     

人工养殖大鲵全长与体重关系的回归分析

大鲵（Andrias dayidianus）隶属两栖纲,有尾目,隐鳃鲵科,大鲵属,为我国特有的珍稀濒危两栖动物。目前在我国一些主要历史分布区掀起了一股大鲵养殖高潮,但是对当前养殖效果缺乏成熟的评价手段,因此本研究通过对陕西省汉中市和安康市两大鲵养殖场养殖的1530尾大鲵的体重和全长进行实际测量,利用SPSS分析软件对数据进行了回归分析。结果表明,体重与全长之间存在极显著的相关关系,体重与全长之间的关系主要表现为幂函数关系,其关系式为：Y=0．010 X2.867。本研究的顺利完成,为今后评价大鲵的人工养殖效果提供了科学的方法。     

Urban Influences on Stream Chemistry and Biology in the Big Brushy Creek Watershed, South Carolina

Naturally high total dissolved solids and upstream agricultural runoff often mask the influence of urban land cover on stream chemistry and biology. We examined the influence of headwater urbanization on the water chemistry, microbiology, and fish communities of the Big Brushy Creek watershed, a 96 km² drainage basin in the piedmont of South Carolina, USA. Concentrations of most major anions and cations (especially nitrate, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, and calcium) were highest in the urban headwaters and decreased downstream. Generally, the highest concentrations of suspended coliform bacteria occurred in the urban headwaters. In contrast, stream habitat quality and the abundance, species richness, and species diversity of fishes did not differ significantly between urban and rural sites. Discharge of wastewater treatment plant effluent at one rural location caused an increase in concentrations of many solutes and possibly the abundance of benthic algae. We hypothesize that atmospheric dry deposition and domestic animal wastes are important sources of stream solutes and of coliform bacteria, respectively, in the urban headwaters. The lack of significant differences in fish abundance and diversity between urban and rural sites may indicate that urban development in the Big Brushy Creek watershed has not yet degraded habitat conditions greatly for stream fishes. Alternatively, agriculture or other land uses may have degraded stream habitat quality throughout the watershed prior to urbanization.     

The importance of understanding spatial population structure when evaluating the effects of silviculture on spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)

Current silvicultural practices in the northeastern United States create diverse vegetation patterns and microclimates that provide a mosaic of terrestrial habitats for amphibian species. We inferred patterns of habitat use by the spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by studying colonization of four newly created breeding pools each surrounded by four different forest treatments: a control, partial cut, clearcut with coarse woody debris (CWD) removed, and clearcut with CWD retained. Created pools were rapidly colonized, indicating that breeding salamanders readily bred in new pools they encountered. This suggests that in our study area pool-specific philopatry and site fidelity may not be high and that particular pools may not define local breeding populations. In the experimental silvicultural treatments, juvenile salamanders preferred the control forest to the clearcuts, whereas adult salamanders showed no significant preferences among the treatments. Although silvicultural practices such as clearcutting may reduce juvenile movement between pools, inter-pool movement by adults that are more tolerant of habitat change may ameliorate this effect in our study area. If juveniles are the primary life-history stage dispersing between local populations (i.e., moving between more isolated groups of pools), however, there is potential for clearcutting to reduce the connectivity between local populations.     

Differential responses of amphibians and reptiles in riparian and stream habitats to land use disturbances in western Georgia, USA

Urban and agricultural land uses have caused documented declines in diversity of many organisms. However, responses of stream- and riparian-dwelling amphibians and reptiles to anthropogenic land development are collectively understudied and, when studied, are often grouped together as though these two taxa respond in a similar fashion. We surveyed watersheds in four land use categories (reference, pasture, developing, and urban) for amphibian and reptile species richness over a two-year period in the southeastern United States. Total herpetofauna species richness was equivalent among all watershed types, but amphibians and reptiles responded differently to urbanization when analyzed separately. Urban watersheds had significantly fewer amphibian species than all other watershed types, but these losses were counterbalanced by significant increases in reptile species richness in these same watersheds. We also found that local, riparian-scale, habitat differences were strongly correlated with species composition differences between pasture and developing watersheds. While the difference in species composition between pasture and developing sites may have multiple, species-specific explanations, the dramatic differences between amphibian and reptile species richness in urban watersheds suggest broad trends that may be important to conservation planning. Specifically, our observations suggest that urbanization in the studied watersheds alters small streams from closed-canopy, shallow-water features of the forested landscape likely present before settlement by Europeans and favored by many salamanders and frogs to features associated with open vegetation and deeper, warmer waters favored by riverine turtles and snakes. We conclude that amphibians and reptiles, despite some physiological similarities, are not equivalent for monitoring purposes. Additionally, if future development in the Piedmont mirrors current urbanization, then significant faunal shifts seem assured.     

城镇化人为扰动下垫面类型影响水源涵养功能的评价

城镇化引起的各种人为扰动地貌单元的水源涵养功能较原地貌明显降低是造成城市水土流失的主要原因,在降雨和排水管网设计能力一定条件下,也是加剧城市内涝的主要原因。该文采用野外调查、室内物理分析及AHP(analytic hierarchy process)层次分析综合评价法,系统地分析了各种人为地貌单元的物质组成和持水性能变化并综合评价了其对原地貌水源涵养功能的影响特征。结果表明:1)各种扰动地貌单元2 mm土体颗粒质量分数在45%以上,原地貌2 mm土壤颗粒质量分数在92%以上;扰动地貌不均匀系数和曲率系数分别在11.05~41.30和0.32~3.15之间变化,其中不均匀系数较原地貌减小了4.51%~80.27%;各种扰动地貌单元土壤容重为施工便道(1.74 g/cm3)边坡绿化带(1.54 g/cm3)1 a弃渣堆积体(1.48 g/cm3)2 a弃渣堆积体(1.34 g/cm3)3 a弃渣堆积体(1.31 g/cm3),比坡耕地依次增加33.85%、18.46%、13.85%、3.08%和0.77%;扰动地貌的土壤总孔隙度、土壤田间持水量和饱和含水量则表现出相反趋势。2)人为扰动地貌单元土壤入渗性能总体小于原地貌单元,而原地貌土壤稳定入渗率则在2.83~6.22 mm/min之间变化;当项目区林地转化为新弃渣堆积体时对降雨和城市洪水动态调节功能影响最大,转化为施工便道时影响最小;人为扰动地貌单元土壤水库总库容、兴利库容和滞洪库容总体低于原地貌,当项目区草地转化为施工便道时对土壤持水能力及调蓄地表径流能力危害最大。3)各种扰动地貌单元水源涵养能力明显小于原地貌单元,以施工便道(0.421)最差,林地最好(0.651);在城镇化过程中应重视城镇水面、林草地的空间分布及占地面积,对短期松散堆积体也最好进行临时绿化措施。4)加强对扰动地貌物质组成、大孔隙结构和降雨-径流-入渗连续性定位研究,同时关注各扰动地貌在不同压实条件下土壤水库蓄水性能对项目区雨洪过程线和排水系统的影响。研究结果可为城市水土保持生态服务功能恢复、城市绿化带建设和洪水内涝缓解提供科学依据。     

Endangered crayfish in northern Japan: Distribution, abundance and microhabitat specificity in relation to stream and riparian environment

Japan’s only native crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus has been declining dramatically in the past few decades. For the purpose of conservation planning, twenty-two coastal streams were surveyed to investigate summer distributions of crayfish in relation to stream and riparian environment. Classification and regression trees were used to predict the occurrence and abundance of crayfish. The classification tree model with stream variables as predictors showed that crayfish would occur in swift or high gradient streams (correct classification rate = 91%). Within those streams, however, crayfish only inhabited depositional microhabitats, in which the areas are limited in availability. Crayfish were not found in gentle, low gradient streams containing abundant depositional microhabitats. This paradoxical distribution pattern was attributed to availability of boulder substrates in swift or high gradient streams. The regression tree model indicated that crayfish abundance was determined primarily by the percentage of boulder substrates and the presence of fish (observed vs. predicted r = 0.64).The classification tree model using only riparian variables indicated that the total woody plant (mainly broadleaf species) density followed by the percentage of early successional species such as alder and willow determined the splits of the tree model (correct classification rate = 95%). A leaf processing experiment on 10 riparian plant species suggested that crayfish preferred high nitrogen (or low C/N) leaves.These results suggest that swift or high gradient fishless streams associated with abundant cover in dense broadleaf forest serve conservation areas for this endangered crayfish, and that consideration of riparian composition may facilitate conservation efforts.     

Effects of Riparian Denitrification on Stream Nitrate-Evidence from Isotope Analysis and Extreme Nitrate Leaching during Rainfall-

The effects of riparian denitrification on stream nitrate were investigated by detailed soil water observations and isotope analysis at a small headwater catchment in an urban area near Tokyo, central Japan. In the base flow period, stream nitrate concentration (<100 µM) was comparable with that of riparian ground water which had less nitrate than unsaturated soil water. Nitrogen isotope analysis showed that the consumption of nitrate by denitrification took place in riparian ground water, suggesting that denitrification is an important process to control nitrate leaching to streams. During rainfall, the concentration of stream nitrate increased up to 400 µM, which was comparable with that of pre-event soil water. The fact that soil water nitrate directly leached to streams indicated that the riparian denitrification process did not work during rainfall because of the rapid discharge of water. A decrease of denitrification effects is a possible reason for high stream nitrate concentration during rainfall.     

汉江流域不同土地利用方式下土壤反硝化率及其控制因素研究

Land-use patterns can affect various nutrient cycles in stream ecosystems, but little information is available about the effects of urban development on denitrification processes at the watershed scale. In the presented study, we investigated the controlling factors of denitrification rates within the streams of the Han River Basin, Korea, with different land-use patterns, in order to enhance the effectiveness of water resource management strategies. Ten watersheds were classified into three land-use patterns （forest, agriculture and urban） using satellite images and geographic information system techniques, and in-situ denitrification rates were determined using an acetylene blocking method. Additionally, sediment samples were collected from each stream to analyze denitrifier communities and abundance using molecular approaches. In-situ denitrification rates were found to be in the order of agricultural streams （289.6 mg N20-N m-2 d-1） 〉 urban streams （157.0 mg N20-N m-2 d-1） 〉 forested streams （41.9 mg N20-N m-2 d-l）. In contrast, the average quantity of denitrifying genes was the lowest in the urban streams. Genetic diversity of denitrifying genes was not affected by watershed land-use pattern, but exhibited stream-dependent pattern. More significance factors were involved in denitrification in the sites with higher denitrification rates. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that clay, dissolved organic carbon and water contents were the main factors controlling denitrification rate in the agricultural streams, while dissolved organic carbon was the main controlling factor in the urban streams. In contrast, temperature appeared to be the main controlling factor in the forested streams.     

Effects of Treated Wastewater Effluent Irrigation on Terrestrial Salamanders

Since 1983, State Game Lands 176 in Centre Co.,Pennsylvania, U.S.A., has been spray irrigated withtreated wastewater effluent as an alternative to thedirect discharge of treated effluent into surfacewaters. Although the effects of wastewater irrigationon birds and mammals had been studied, its effects onamphibians were unknown. We examined the physiological and behavioral responses of juvenile Jefferson salamanders (Ambystoma jeffersonianum Green) to effluent-irrigated soils and wastewater effluent in the field and laboratory to assess the effects of wastewater irrigation on the terrestrial phase of this species. Salamanders confined to irrigated soils for 35 d showed no difference in six physiological parameters (growth, body water concentration, and body sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium levels) compared to those enclosed on unirrigated soils. Salamanders on wastewater effluentsoaked substrates for the same duration in thelaboratory had higher body sodium concentration thanthose on deionized water soaked substrates, likely dueto elevated sodium levels in wastewater effluent.Salamanders demonstrated no `preference' for irrigatedor unirrigated soils over three days when allowed achoice between the two substrates in behavioral tests. These results suggest wastewater effluent irrigationis not acutely toxic to terrestrial A.jeffersonianum under natural conditions. Long-termadverse effects wastewater irrigation on terrestrialJefferson salamanders are still possible, andexaminations of salamander growth and survival overlonger durations are needed to assess the holisticimpacts of wastewater spraying on this species.     

Impact of nitrogen cycling associated with production and consumption of food on nitrogen pollution of stream water

We evaluated the impact of nitrogen (N) cycling on N pollution of stream water, with emphasis on N disposed of (hereafter referred to as “disposal N”) from human and livestock excrement and the N surplus in cropland, compared to the total-N concentration of stream water, in seven zones of Asahikawa City characterized by various types of land use. In order to estimate N cycling, we used the Nitrogen Flow Model, composed of the N budgets of human, livestock, and cropland subsystems. The urban area with a population density of over 4,000 persons km^-2 generated a very large amount of disposal N (about 2,700 kg N ha^-1 cropland y^-1). Based on the amount of disposal N and the volume of domestic sewage water used, the N concentration estimated for the urban area was 34 mg N L^-1, which found in the effluent from the sewage treatment facility (24–28 mg N L^-1), regardless of the season. Thus, it was indicated that most of the disposal N in the urban area was discharged directly to streams through the sewage treatment facilities, contributing to a point source of N pollution of stream water. In addition, the disposal N from livestock facilities was larger in pig and poultry farming areas than in other farming areas, contributing to some extent to a potential source of N pollution. As a result, the concentrations increased above 1 mg N L^-1 in the urban and surrounding areas. On the other hand, the N surplus in cropland was practically determined by the N flows associated with chemical fertilizer, livestock excrement as manure, and crop uptake. The N surplus was similar among the seven zones, ranging from 69 to 99 kg N ha^-1 y^-1. The N concentration estimated from the amount of N surplus and 50% of mean annual precipitation as a discharge rate was 13.6–19.5 mg N L^-1. Most of the surplus N was indicated to be leached out. However, the total-N concentration measured in the major streams flowing through Asahikawa City was mostly below 1 mg N L^-1 except for the urban and surrounding areas. The surplus N in cropland may not reach the streams, even if N leaching occurs, probably due to N removal by plant uptake, denitrification, and sedimentation in the riparian zone and stream channels. Thus the effect of agricultural practices on N pollution of stream water was not appreciable.     

Impacts of urbanization on Florida Key deer behavior and population dynamics

Rapid human population growth and urbanization have had a negative impact on species biodiversity. As competition for resources between man and wildlife continues, it is important to understand the effects of urbanization on species. Endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) are endemic to the Florida Keys which have undergone rapid human population growth and development over the past 30 years. Our study objectives were to evaluate the impacts of urban development on Key deer habitat use, population dynamics, behavior, and body mass. We used data from two comprehensive studies on Key deer spanning 30 years to evaluate these changes. Our results suggest that Key deer have become more urbanized, using urban areas more today than they did 30 years ago. Contrary to our predictions, survival was higher for more urban deer than for less urban deer. Problems still exist with mortality factors heavily impacting some portions of the deer population including lower survival associated with less urban male deer. Analysis of Key deer body mass also was converse to our predictions as deer weights appear to have increased over time. Collectively, our results suggest that over the past 30 years Key deer have become more urbanized and that deer plasticity has allowed them to adapt and persist in an urbanizing environment. However, the future ability of Key deer to persist in an environment with continued urban development is unknown. At some threshold, urban development would become unsustainable and unlike other forms of habitat change or environmental disturbances, urban development is in most cases irreversible requiring careful planning in habitat conservation strategies.     

南昌不同城市化强度土壤粒度组成和分形特征及其影响因素

为探究南昌城市化强度对土壤粒度组成与分形特征的影响,将南昌市建成区按不透水面面积占比区分城市化强度等级取样调查（184个样方）,测定土壤粒度组成、理化性质及植被指标,通过土壤颗粒体积分形维数模型计算分形维数值。结果显示：①南昌城市土壤颗粒以粉粒（46~59%）和砂粒（40~53%）为主,高城市化导致土壤中砂粒含量增加,粉粒含量减少。②南昌城市土壤分形维数的变化范围为2.69~2.97,随城市化强度增加呈下降趋势。土壤粉粒与分形维数正相关,砂粒与之相反,粉粒对土壤分形维数的影响最大。③皮尔森相关分析与结构方程模型分析结果共同表明：丰富的地上植被能够减少土壤颗粒的流失,改善土壤物理性质,缓解土壤退化;城市绿地中粉粒、极细砂粒等粒径适中的土壤颗粒保水、保肥更佳,更能反映土壤的质量水平。     

The Development of a Regional Multimetric Fish Model Based on Biological Integrity in Lotic Ecosystems and Some Factors Influencing the Stream Health

The objective of this study was to develop an index of biological integrity (IBI) for national-level monitoring of watersheds as an ecosystem health assessment methodology for the South Korean government. A 10-metric IBI model (IBI_KW) was developed for watershed management and then applied to 76 streams in four major watersheds in Korea. The model assessments showed that 32.9% of all streams were judged to be in ??excellent?Cgood?? condition, whereas 67.1% were in ??fair?Cpoor?? condition, indicating severely impaired ecological health. Nutrient analyses of stream water revealed a two- to fivefold increase in nutrient and biological oxygen demand (BOD) levels in urban- and cropland-dominant streams compared to forest-dominant streams. The guild structure within the watersheds indicated that tolerant species were predominant in severely degraded regions (BOD?>?6 mg L^?1), and sensitive species were distributed in regions with BOD?<?2 mg L^?1. Factors affecting ecosystem health (IBI_KW scores) included chemical water quality parameters, physical habitat parameters and land use around the stream. In particular, land use was one of the major factors influencing ecosystem health, as indicated by the strong relationships between the percentages of urban and forest streams and the IBI_KW scores. The integrated ecosystem health assessment technique developed here can be applied for both regular bioassessments and post-restoration assessments.     

Survival of the western pond turtle (Emys marmorata) in an urban California environment

The western pond turtle Emys (formerly Clemmys) marmorata is declining throughout its range, primarily due to loss of habitat via urbanization and conversion to agriculture. Urban waterways present several important challenges to freshwater turtle populations, but they also present an opportunity to maintain declining species in a ubiquitous habitat that has high public visibility. The arboretum waterway on the University of California, Davis campus is an example of an extensively altered urban habitat that supports a relatively large E. marmorata population. Over the last 6 years, we monitored the turtle population inhabiting the arboretum waterway to determine the demographic health of the population, and the challenges and opportunities that urban environments pose for pond turtles. Since 1993, the naturally existing arboretum pond turtle population has declined by approximately 40% and has shown little natural recruitment. During this time, we also introduced 31 headstarted turtles into the arboretum. Headstarting is the process of raising juveniles in captivity until they have outgrown their period of greatest vulnerability to predators, and then releasing them into the wild. Our headstarting results demonstrate that this contentious strategy is a viable option for adding young turtles to the population, although it does not address the causes of decline. Over the course of our study, we encountered nine species of non-native turtles in the waterway, and these appear to be a serious threat to the native species. As more habitat becomes urbanized, it is increasingly important to understand how freshwater turtles, such as E. marmorata, adapt to urban waterways and the impact of non-native turtles on native turtle species. Our strong feeling is that urban waterways can provide habitat for viable populations of freshwater turtles and showcase them to the public, but both the aquatic and terrestrial habitat must be managed according to the biological requirements of individual species.