Tracer aroma compound transfer from a solid and complex-flavored food matrix packed in treated papers or plastic packaging film

The objective of this work was to study the transfer of four aroma compounds (ethyl butyrate, ethyl hexanoate, cis-3-hexenol, and benzaldehyde) from a solid and complex-flavored food matrix (sponge cake) toward and through packaging films placed in indirect contact during storage in accelerated aging conditions (38 degrees C and 86% relative humidity gradient). The efficiency of treated papers relative to that of standard paper and plastic as barrier was tested. Before storage, aroma compound volatility in the sponge cake was measured, and similar values were found between aroma compounds, due to the fat content of the sponge cake. Whatever the aroma compound, permeability values during storage were similar for the same packaging film. The plastic film was the highest barrier, whereas calendering and coating treatments applied to treated papers decreased effectively their permeability. An opposite trend was observed for aroma compound sorption into packaging films during storage.     

Self-assembled pullulan-silica oxygen barrier hybrid coatings for food packaging applications

The scope of this study encompassed the evaluation of pullulan as a suitable biopolymer for the development of oxygen barrier coatings to be applied on poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), especially for food packaging applications. To enhance the oxygen barrier properties of the organic phase (pullulan) even at high relative humidity values, an inorganic phase (silica), obtained through in situ polymerization, was also utilized to obtain hybrid coatings via the sol-gel technique. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra showed that mixing the two phases yielded a three-dimensional hybrid network formed by self-assembly and mediated by the occurrence of new hydrogen-bond interactions at the intermolecular level, although the formation of new covalent bonds could not be excluded. The deposition of the hybrid coatings decreased the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of the plastic substrate by up to 2 orders of magnitude under dry conditions. The best performance throughout the scanned humidity range (0%-80% relative humidity) was obtained for the formulation with the lowest amount of silica (that is, an organic/inorganic ratio equal to 3).     

Development of new antioxidant active packaging films based on ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) and green tea extract

Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) films containing green tea extract were successfully produced by extrusion. The films were brown and translucent, and the addition of the extract increased the water and oxygen barrier at low relative humidity but increased the water sensitivity, the glass transition temperature, and the crystallinity of the films and improved their thermal resistance. An analysis by HPLC revealed that the antioxidant components of the extract suffered partial degradation during extrusion, reducing the content of catechin gallates and increasing the concentration of free gallic acid. Exposure of the films to various food simulants showed that the liquid simulants increased their capacity to reduce DPPH(?) and ABTS(?+) radicals. The release of green tea extract components into the simulant monitored by HPLC showed that all compounds present in the green tea extract were partially released, although the extent and kinetics of release were dependent on the type of food. In aqueous food simulants, gallic acid was the main antioxidant component released with partition coefficient values ca. 200. In 95% ethanol (fatty food simulant) the K value for gallic acid decreased to 8 and there was a substantial contribution of catechins (K in the 1000 range) to a greatly increased antioxidant efficiency. Kinetically, gallic acid was released more quickly than catechins, owing to its faster diffusivity in the polymer matrix as a consequence of its smaller molecular size, although the most relevant effect is the plasticization of the matrix by alcohol, increasing the diffusion coefficient >10-fold. Therefore, the materials here developed with the combination of antioxidant substances that constitute the green tea extract could be used in the design of antioxidant active packaging for all type of foods, from aqueous to fatty products, the compounds responsible for the protection being those with the higher compatibility with the packaged product.     

Influence of temperature, modified atmosphere packaging, and heat treatment on aroma compounds in broccoli

The aroma compounds in broccoli stored in different modified atmospheres were studied. The packaging materials used were oriented polypropylene (OPP), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) containing an ethylene-absorbing sachet. All samples were stored for either 1 week at a constant temperature of 10 degrees C or for 3 days at 4 degrees C, followed by 4 days at 10 degrees C. The atmospheres that developed inside the packaging materials differed significantly. The broccoli samples were analyzed raw and after cooking, with regard to volatile compounds, using gas-phase (headspace) extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-olfactometry. Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS), hexanal, 3-cis-hexen-1-ol, nonanal, ethanol, and a group of thiocyanates were selected for a detailed study because these compounds cause off-odor and can be used as indicators of stress. Significant differences were found in the aroma profiles of the broccoli samples relative to the packaging materials used for storage. Storage in OPP (14% O(2), 10.5% CO(2)) resulted in most of the off-odors, while storage in LDPE (6% O(2), 7% CO(2)) and PVC (17.9% O(2), 4% CO(2)) was found to maintain the concentration of DMS, DMDS, and DMTS during storage. Heat treatment of the broccoli increased the content of aroma compounds as well as the number of compounds containing sulfur.     

Effect of concentration and relative humidity on the transfer of alkan-2-ones through paper coated with wheat gluten

The transport properties of two methyl ketones, 2-heptanone and 2-nonanone, through a paper coated with a wheat gluten (WG) solution were studied as a function of aroma compound concentration differential and relative humidity. Whatever the conditions, coating improved the aroma barrier properties of the paper. Whereas permeability of 2-nonanone through WG coated paper was not affected by the concentration differential, a high concentration of 2-heptanone induced a permeability increase, which can be explained by a slight plasticization effect of this compound. The moisture content of the films markedly affected the barrier properties depending on the aroma compound. For 2-heptanone, the most polar compound, the increase of permeability with relative humidity was related to the increase of diffusivity and solubility coefficient of this compound. With 2-nonanone, permeability and diffusivity coefficients strongly decreased with the increase of moisture content. This decrease could be linked to the hindrance in diffusivity of the less polar compound induced by the presence of water molecules. The different behavior in permeation properties seems to be related to the hydrophobic nature of the aroma compound. At intermediate and high humidity levels, coated papers are found to have better aroma barrier properties than LDPE films.     

Kinetics of moisture-induced hydrolysis in powder blends stored at and below the deliquescence relative humidity: investigation of sucrose-citric acid mixtures

Previous studies have shown that deliquescent organic compounds frequently exhibit chemical instability when stored in environmental conditions above their deliquescence relative humidity (RH). The goal of the current study was to investigate the effect of atmospheric moisture on the long-term chemical stability of crystalline sucrose-citric acid mixtures following storage at RHs at and below the mutual deliquescence relative humidity (MDRH). Interestingly, it was found that sucrose hydrolysis can occur below the MDRH of 64% and was observed for samples stored at 54% RH. However, hydrolysis was not seen for samples stored at 33 or 43% RH. The rate of sucrose hydrolysis could be modeled by taking into account the rate and extent of moisture uptake, which in turn was dependent on the composition of the powder and the storage RH. A reaction mechanism initiated by capillary condensation and involving additional deliquescence lowering by the degradation products formed as a result of sucrose hydrolysis (glucose and fructose) was proposed.     

Stabilization of aroma compounds through sorption-release by packaging polymers

Plastic packaging materials are often associated to aroma losses and to a decrease of the organoleptic quality of foods. This work defines situations where, on the contrary, plastics play a regulating role on the concentration of reactive aroma compounds in foods. These systems can be described by a two step mechanism; first, aroma is sorbed in the polymer, while the fraction in solution degrades quickly; in a second step, as the concentration is close to zero in the solution, the polymer liberates progressively the sorbed aroma back to the food. A simple numerical model is proposed, describing competitive processes of aroma degradation in solution and sorption by a polymer in contact with a homogeneous aqueous food. The classical limonene/low density polyethylene (LDPE) system is studied experimentally for the validation of the model: in an acidic medium, limonene both degrades quickly and is sorbed quickly, with a large solubility in LDPE. To define which aroma packaging systems could also display this interesting behavior, all types of possible interactions, using thermodynamic and kinetic parameters describing most practical situations, are simulated. For that purpose, 35 values of reference diffusion coefficients and 35 partition coefficients of usual aroma compounds between polymers and water have been measured and combined with the few available data from literature. The situations where polymers regulate the aroma concentration in food correspond to large partition coefficients (above 10), large diffusion coefficients (>10(-9) cm2 x s(-1)), and large degradation constants.     

Flavor, color, and vitamin C retention of pulsed electric field processed orange juice in different packaging materials

Effects of packaging materials, storage temperature, and time on the stability of pulsed electric field (PEF) processed orange juice were investigated. Single-strength orange juice was treated with PEF at an electric field strength of 35 kV/cm for 59 micros using an integrated pilot plant scale PEF processing and glovebox packaging system. The retention of eight orange juice aroma compounds, color, and vitamin C in glass, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene, and low-density polyethylene were evaluated at 4 and 22 degrees C for 112 days. Packaging material had a significant effect (p < or = 0.05) on the retention of orange juice aroma compounds, color, and vitamin C. PEF-treated orange juice had a shelf life of >16 weeks in glass and PET at 4 degrees C.     

Release kinetics of tocopherol and quercetin from binary antioxidant controlled-release packaging films

This paper investigated the feasibility of manipulating packaging polymers with various degrees of hydrophobicity to release two antioxidants, tocopherol and quercetin, at rates suitable for long-term inhibition of lipid oxidation in food. For example, one antioxidant can be released at a fast rate to provide short-term/intermediate protection, whereas the other antioxidant can be released at a slower rate to provide intermediate/long-term protection of lipid oxidation. Controlled-release packaging films containing tocopherol and quercetin were produced using ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) polymers; the release of these antioxidants to 95% ethanol (a fatty food simulant) was measured using UV-vis spectrophotometry, and Fickian diffusion models with appropriate initial and boundary conditions were used to fit the data. For films containing only quercetin, the results show that the release of quercetin was much faster but lasted for a much shorter time for hydrophilic polymers (EVOH and EVA) than for hydrophobic polymers (LDPE and PP). For binary antioxidant films containing tocopherol and quercetin, the results show that tocopherol released more rapidly but for a shorter period of time than quercetin in LDPE and EVOH films, and the difference is more pronounced for LDPE films than EVOH films. The results also show the presence of tocopherol can accelerate the release of quercetin. Although none of the films produced is acceptable for long-term lipid oxidation inhibition, the study provides encouraging results suggesting that acceptable films may be produced in the future using polymer blend films.     

Effect of flavor compound chemical structure and environmental relative humidity on the binding of volatile flavor compounds to dehydrated soy protein isolates

Influence of flavor compound chemical structure, including functional group and stereochemistry, and environmental relative humidity (RH) on the binding of volatile flavor compounds to dehydrated soy protein isolates (SPIs) was evaluated by inverse gas chromatography. Binding of selected volatile flavor compounds differed slightly between SPIs of different origins. Results showed that the flavor compound chemical structure greatly determined its binding potential to SPIs. Binding of nonpolar flavor compounds (hydrocarbon) to soy proteins was attributed mainly to nonspecific van der Waals dispersion forces and was not affected by adsorbed water. The more polar flavor compounds (ester, ketone, aldehyde, and alcohol) exhibited both specific (hydrogen bonding, dipole forces) and nonspecific interactions, and their binding with soy proteins was greatly impaired by adsorbed water in the extremely low humidity region (approaching 0% RH). Further water uptake in the 30 to 50% RH region did not significantly affect the binding of polar compounds, although sorption of alcohol compounds (when present at high levels) further increased.     

Effect of sorbed oil on food aroma loss through packaging materials.

Mass transport of six food aroma components, D-limonene, n-decane, ethyl caproate, phenylethanol, 1-hexanol, and hexanal, through three sealable polymer films suitable for direct food contact, ultra-low-density polyethylene (ULDPE), ionomer (ION), and modified polyester (mPET), was analyzed by permeation experiments. Transport was characterized by the permeability coefficient and its two contributing factors, the diffusion coefficient (related to kinetics) and the solubility coefficient (related to equilibrium). The results show that ULDPE is more permeable to aromas that ION, which is more so than mPET. Differences in diffusivity are mainly responsible for barrier improvement. With aromas, nonpolar compounds permeate faster than polar ones through ULDPE. The effect of sorbed oil on the behavior of these materials as food aroma barriers was investigated. The sorption of oil apparently resulted in polymer swelling, increasing the solubility of aromas into the polymer matrixes. Little or no effect was found on the values of the diffusion coefficient. The permeability coefficient was affected as a consequence of changes in solubility. When aromas were compared, the transport of nonpolar penetrants showed a considerable increase while permeability values for the polar ones were either unaffected or even reduced. This behavior has been discussed in terms of polymer/oil/aroma compatibility.     

Laboratory study of SO2 dry deposition on limestone and marble: Effects of humidity and surface variables

The dry deposition of gaseous air pollutants on stone and other materials is influenced by atmospheric processes and the chemical characteristics of the deposited gas species and of the specific receptor material. Previous studies have shown that relative humidity, surface moisture, and acid buffering capability of the receptor surface are very important factors. To better quantify this behavior, a special recirculating wind tunnel/environmental chamber was constructed, in which wind speed, turbulence, air temperature, relative humidity, and concentrations of several pollutants (SO₂, O₃, nitrogen oxides) can be held constant. An airfoil sample holder holds up to eight stone samples (3.8 cm in diameter and 1 cm thick) in nearly identical exposure conditions. SO₂ deposition on limestone was found to increase exponentially with increasing relative humidity (RH). Marble behaves similarly, but with a much lower deposition rate. Trends indicate there is little deposition below 20% RH on clean limestone and below 60% RH on clean marble. This large difference is due to the limestone's greater porosity, surface roughness, and effective surface area. These results indicate surface variables generally limit SO₂ deposition below about 70% RH on limestone and below at least 95% RH on marble. Aerodynamic variables generally limit deposition at higher relative humidity or when the surface is wet.     

Inverse gas chromatographic method for measurement of interactions between soy protein isolate and selected flavor compounds under controlled relative humidity

An inverse gas chromatographic (IGC) method was developed to study the binding interactions between selected volatile flavor compounds and soy protein isolate (SPI) under controlled relative humidity (RH). Three volatile probes (hexane, 1-hexanol, and hexanal) at very low levels were used to evaluate and validate system performance. On the basis of the thermodynamic data and the isotherms measured at 0% RH, 1-hexanol and hexanal had higher binding affinities than hexane, which could be attributed to hydrogen-bonding interactions with SPI. At 30% RH, 1-hexanol and hexanal were retained less than at 0% RH, indicating possible competition for binding sites on the SPI surface between water and volatile probe molecules. Results showed that the thermodynamic data determined were comparable to the available literature values. Use of IGC allowed for the rapid and precise generation of sorption isotherms. Repeatability between replicate injections and reproducibility across columns were very good. IGC is a potentially high-throughput method for the sensitive, precise, and accurate measurement of flavor-ingredient interactions in low-moisture food systems.     

基于层次分析法的面制主食杀菌及包装生产线设计与试验

为适应面制主食工业化生产,保证主食流通过程中的质量,研制可集成于面制主食工业化生产线末端的复合杀菌包装生产线。依据面制主食贮藏特性及流通过程中变质的影响因素,结合食品保鲜包装的技术与方法,确定面制主食杀菌包装生产线由主食干燥、复合杀菌和包装三大功能装置组成。在设计方案时采用层次分析法,选择主食杀菌包装生产线上所用食品干燥、杀菌保鲜技术方案,并设计生产线的物料流程。优选的结果为,干燥采用红外线干燥,复合杀菌方式为低温、紫外线和臭氧相结合,包装采用接缝式裹包,且整条生产线可程序化控制,实现杀菌时间、紫外线照度、臭氧浓度和温度的实时调节,为主食品工业化生产提供杀菌包装装备。利用该设备对馒头进行复合杀菌试验,结果表明馒头的色泽和质构均优于自然放置的馒头,经杀菌包装后的馒头在温度4℃,相对湿度为50%~70%的环境中贮存20 d其菌落总数为3.5 lg(CFU/g),达到预定20 d的保质期。研究结果为面制主食工业化生产及复合杀菌包装装备设计提供参考。     

干雾湿度控制系统的组建及果蔬贮藏保鲜应用试验

为了实现果蔬贮藏所需环境恒定高湿度的精准自动控制,该文作者以净化水和压缩空气为原料,采用特殊的雾化器、湿度传感器及微电脑控制终端等组件,设计组建了干雾湿度控制系统,可喷发2~10μm的水雾离子均匀扩散到环境空气中,提供90%~98%的精确高湿度。加湿性能及加湿效果测试证明该系统可有效实现果蔬贮藏库内恒定湿度的精准自动控制。果蔬贮藏保鲜应用试验表明,干雾湿度控制系统可有效防止未包装果蔬在贮藏过程中的失水失质量,延长其贮藏保鲜期1倍以上。作为采后果蔬贮运保鲜加湿的技术,干雾湿度控制系统具有低温下高湿度不会凝露滴水,库内呈"干爽"状态,节能环保,节约劳动力等优点,可替代采用聚乙烯薄或袋的保湿保鲜方法。     

恒温下相对湿度对果蔬热风干燥特性和品质的影响及调控

相对湿度作为干燥介质的重要参数，对干燥热质传质过程和干燥品质具有显著影响。但由于相对湿度对干燥过程的影响机理及优化调控机制尚不明确，导致相对湿度的调控方式多依靠经验，造成干燥效率低、品质差、能耗高等问题。对于传质过程，降低相对湿度能够增大对流传质系数，加快物料表面水分蒸发；而对于传热过程，升高相对湿度能够增大对流传热系数，加快物料升温速率。相对湿度较高时，物料升温速率快，内部水分迁移量增大，但表面水分蒸发量较小；而当相对湿度较低时，物料升温速率较慢，内部水分迁移量较小，但表面水分蒸发量较大。相对传热和传质过程的影响此消彼长，互相耦合。高相对湿度主要体现为对传热过程的影响，低相对湿度主要体现为对传质过程的影响。高相对湿度能够抑制物料表面的结壳，并能够提高复水性，降低收缩率。阶段降湿及多阶段降湿干燥方式下物料表面形成和保持了蜂窝状多孔结构，能够提高干燥效率和品质。基于监测物料温度的相对湿度调控方式被验证为较忧的相对湿度控制方式。阶段降湿干燥方式适用性的实质为：干燥过程中所体现出的对流传热热阻和内部导热热阻的相对大小，及对流传质阻力和内部传质阻力的相对大小，不同干燥条件和物料种类、厚度会影响以上传热传质阻力的大小，从而呈现出不同适应性的结果。当阶段降湿干燥过程中传热毕渥数>1且传热毕渥数>0.1时，说明阶段降湿干燥过程适用于此物料的干燥。该文综合论述了相对湿度对果蔬热风干燥过程中热质传递及干燥品质的影响，优化调控策略及适用性范围4个方面内容，明确了果蔬热风干燥过程中相对湿度的影响机理，为相对湿度的优化调控提供理论依据和技术支持。     

自然状态下栓皮栎人工林空气负离子浓度与相对湿度的关系

空气负离子是衡量一个地区空气清洁度的重要指标,对人体的心理和生理机能具有重要的促进作用。随着森林生态旅游的兴起,空气负离子的发生过程及影响机制已成为生物气象、森林生态和森林康养等相关领域的研究热点。本研究以华北低丘山地栓皮栎人工林为试验对象,在2018年和2019年6−9月森林植被叶面积相对不变期间,定位观测获取人工林冠层空气负离子及微气象参数,采用Python软件筛选出光合有效辐射约为零,温度、风速及颗粒物浓度相对不变条件下的观测数据,分析空气湿度（RH）对空气负离子浓度（NAI）的影响特征,建立基于空气相对湿度的预测模型,并对模型进行检验。结果表明,在不同空气相对湿度范围内,空气负离子浓度随空气湿度的升高呈现三种变化趋势,在空气相对湿度35%～55%范围内,空气负离子浓度相对稳定,二者呈稳定常数关系;在相对湿度55%～75%范围内,空气负离子浓度迅速上升,二者呈线性递增关系;在相对湿度75%～95%范围内,空气负离子浓度适度下降,二者呈线性递减关系。在此基础上,构建了空气负离子浓度与空气相对湿度的分段拟合方程,3个湿度区间分别为NAI=729;NAI=9.396RH+198.994,决定系数（R2）为0.807（P＜0.01）;以及NAI=−4.849RH+1232.992,决定系数（R2）为0.642（P＜0.01）。各拟合函数的预测值与实测值均不存在显著差异,均方根误差（RMSE）分别为6.175、7.091、8.213,而RH在55%～75%和75%～95%范围内决定系数（R2）分别为0.806、0.836,模型的模拟精度高且均方根误差较小。说明构建的分段拟合函数能够准确反映空气相对湿度对空气负离子浓度的影响,可为进一步深入研究空气负离子对气候变化的响应机制提供基础依据。     

Influence of physicochemical interactions between amylose and aroma compounds on the retention of aroma in food-like matrices

In food matrices, where starch is often used as a gelling or texturing agent, the occurrence of amylose-aroma complexes and their effect on the release of aroma compounds are difficult to determine. Indeed, thick or gelled systems are known to reduce the diffusion rate of flavor molecules, resulting in an increase of retention. Moreover, interactions between aroma compounds and matrix components might increase the retention of aroma compounds. The complexing behavior of three aroma compounds with amylose was studied by DSC and X-ray diffraction to determine the relative importance of these two factors. Their interaction properties were different: two of them formed complexes, and the third did not. These aroma compounds were added in food matrices containing different starches that induced different textures. Their retention was studied by static headspace analysis. The retention of aroma compounds appeared to depend on the amylose/amylopectin ratio of starch, both from the formation of complexes and by a viscosity effect.     

基于毕渥数的果蔬阶段降湿热风干燥特性

为了揭示阶段降湿热风干燥技术的适用性,该研究在干燥温度60℃、风速1.0 m/s 时,研究了不同厚度胡萝卜片（6、12、18 mm）和龙眼物料在阶段降湿（第1阶段相对湿度（Relative Humidity,RH）50%保持30 min;第2阶段RH 20%至结束）和连续排湿（RH<15%）干燥条件下的干燥特性,传热毕渥数（heat transfer Biot,Bih）和传质毕渥数（mass transfer Biot,Bim）、水分有效扩散系数（effective moisture diffusion coefficient, Deff）、色泽、复水比及能耗值。研究表明：对于厚度为6 mm的胡萝卜片和龙眼物料,相对于阶段降湿,连续排湿有助于提高干燥效率;对于12或18 mm的胡萝卜片,阶段降湿能够提高Deff。6、12和18 mm的胡萝卜片在干燥过程中的Bih分别为0.582 7、1.165 5和1.748 2。6 mm时Bih<1,内部扩散的水分能够及时迁移至表面,维持较低RH有助于加快干燥速率。12或18 mm时Bih>1,物料表面和内部存在着较大的水分和温度梯度,此时需要采用阶段降湿干燥方式。不同厚度胡萝卜片干燥过程中的Bim在0.156 8～0.223 0之间;连续排湿和阶段降湿干燥条件下,龙眼Bim分别为0.110 3和0.084 3。这表明,水分由果肉内部迁移至果肉表面的传质阻力较小,干燥过程中果肉收缩、坚硬的外壳及外界较高RH使得水分迁移产生较大阻力。不同厚度胡萝卜片Bim>0.1,表明物料内部至表面存在较大的水分梯度,应采用高RH以减小表面水分蒸发速率,同时升高物料温度。对于6 mm胡萝卜和龙眼物料,连续排湿干燥条件下色泽较好,复水比高且能耗低;而对于12 或18 mm的胡萝卜片,阶段降湿干燥条件下具有较好的色泽,较高的复水比及较低的能耗。综上,阶段降湿干燥过程中,Bih>1且Bim>0.1时,说明阶段降湿干燥适用于此物料的干燥,否则宜采用连续排湿干燥方式。该研究可为果蔬热风干燥过程中合适的RH调控方式筛选提供理论依据和技术支持。     

Chemical modification of wheat protein-based natural polymers: cross-linking effect on mechanical properties and phase structures

Chemical modification of wheat protein-based natural polymer materials was conducted using glyoxal as cross-linker, and the cross-linking effect was studied on mechanical properties under different humidity conditions, the molecular motions of each component, and the phase structures/components of the whole materials. The cross-linking significantly enhanced the mechanical strength of wheat gluten (WG) materials under RH = 50%. The elongation of materials was also increased, which was in contrast to many cross-linked protein systems. The reaction mainly occurred in proteins and starch components, resulting in the formation of a stable cross-linked network with restricted molecular motions and modified motional dynamics. Although the plasticizer glycerol could also take part in the reaction with glyoxal or other components in WG especially when the glyoxal content was higher, the amount of glycerol involved in such reactions was very little. Glycerol was predominantly hydrogen-bonded with the network. The lipid component did not seem to take part in the cross-linking reaction; its mobility was promoted while its interaction with the protein-starch network was weakened after cross-linking. The formation of the cross-linked network did not enhance the hydrophobicity of the materials; the materials still adsorbed a high level of moisture under high humidity conditions (ca. RH = 85%) with no improvement in mechanical strength. In addition, further increasing the amount of glyoxal did not generate an additional strength improvement even at RH = 50%, possibly because the enhanced mobility of lipid promoted the component to be phase-separated from the WG system. To improve the water-resistant properties, the hydrophobicity of the protein macromolecules requires enhancement by other chemical modifications.