Associations between television viewing and consumption of commonly advertised foods among New Zealand children and young adolescents

OBJECTIVES: To explore how time spent watching television (TV) is associated with the dietary behaviours of New Zealand children and young adolescents. DESIGN: Secondary data analysis of a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey. SETTING: In homes or schools of New Zealand school students. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 3275 children aged 5 to 14 years. RESULTS: The odds of being overweight or obese increased with duration of TV viewing for children and adolescents when controlling for age, sex, ethnicity, socio-economic status and physical activity. Children and adolescents who watched the most TV were significantly more likely to be higher consumers of foods most commonly advertised on TV: soft drinks and fruit drinks, some sweets and snacks, and some fast foods. Both children and adolescents watching two or more hours of TV a day were more than twice as likely to drink soft drinks five times a week or more (P = 0.03 and P = 0.04, respectively), eat hamburgers at least once a week (both P = 0.02), and eat French fries at least once a week (both P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that longer duration of TV watching (thus, more frequent exposure to advertising) influences the frequency of consumption of soft drinks, some sweets and snacks, and some fast foods among children and young adolescents. Efforts to curtail the amount of time children spend watching TV may result in better dietary habits and weight control for children and adolescents. Future studies examining the impact of advertising on children's diets through interventions and international comparisons of legislation would provide more definitive evidence of the role of advertising in child and adolescent obesity.     

School food in Mexican children

OBJECTIVE: To establish the school eating habits of Mexican children, who are prone to obesity and later to high rates of adult chronic diseases. DESIGN: Questionnaires for students and parents with staff questionnaires and interviews. SETTING: Randomly sampled schools in a socio-economically representative district of Mexico City. SUBJECTS: Subjects were 1504 adolescents aged 10-19 years attending schools in Mexico City, 27 teachers and seven headmasters, sampled from both public and private schools and from the full range of socio-economic groups. RESULTS: Foods brought from home were of a higher nutritional quality than those purchased at school, where purchases were dominated by crisps, soft drinks and other items with high energy density. Girls were more inclined to purchase inappropriately; those from poorer homes purchased less. Private-school students irrespective of socio-economic grade brought more food from home and purchased more expensive food at school. School policies allowed food and drink vendors to market any products within the schools, which benefited financially from these activities. CONCLUSIONS: Current school food policies are conducive to amplifying the current epidemic of obesity and related adult chronic diseases, and need to change.     

Food habits and physical activity patterns among Palestinian adolescents: findings from the national study of Palestinian schoolchildren (HBSC-WBG2004)

OBJECTIVE: To describe the food habits and physical (in)activity patterns and to investigate the relationship with sociodemographic factors among Palestinian adolescents. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: The Palestinian Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) is a cross-sectional survey of grades 6, 8, 10 and 12. Students completed a modified version of the international HBSC questionnaire. A total of 8885 students were included in this analysis; 53% were from the West Bank and 47% from the Gaza Strip. RESULTS: Adolescents in the West Bank consume more fruit, meat, chicken, sweets and soft drinks, but less vegetables than adolescents in Gaza (P<0.01). Girls reported more daily consumption of fruit, vegetables and sweets than boys (P<0.001), and less consumption of soft drinks, milk, meat and chicken (P<0.01). Boys were physically more active than girls (P<0.01), whereas girls reported doing more homework (P<0.001). Both boys and girls reported less physical activity with increasing age (P<0.001). Consumption of fruit and milk was positively associated with both parents' education, while consumption of meat, chicken and soft drinks was positively associated with mother's education only. Having breakfast on schooldays was positively associated with the father's education. Physical activity and television viewing were associated with the mother's education (P<0.01). The parents' level of education had no effect on vegetable consumption and dieting status. CONCLUSION: This study indicated that there are problems with Palestinian adolescents' eating, dieting and physical activity. Regional, gender and parental socio-economic status differences should be taken into account in developing interventions. More detailed studies are needed with more elaborate instruments about food habits and physical activity of adolescents.     

Association of key foods and beverages with obesity in Australian schoolchildren

OBJECTIVE: To examine the pattern of intake of key foods and beverages of children aged 4-12 years and the association with weight status. DESIGN AND SETTING: A computer-assisted telephone interview was used to determine the intake of fruit, vegetables, packaged snacks, fast foods and sweetened drinks 'yesterday' and 'usually' as reported by parents/guardians of a representative sample of 2184 children from the Barwon South-Western region of Victoria, Australia. RESULTS: Children who consumed >2-3, >3-4 and >4 servings of fruit juice/drinks 'yesterday' were, respectively, 1.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-2.2), 1.7 (95% CI 1.2-2.5) and 2.1 (95% CI 1.5-2.9) times more likely to be overweight/obese compared with those who had no servings of fruit juice/drink 'yesterday', adjusted for age, gender and socio-economic status (SES). Further, children who had > or = 3 servings of soft drink 'yesterday' were 2.2 (95% CI 1.3-3.9) times more likely to be overweight/obese compared with those who had no servings of soft drink 'yesterday', adjusted for age, gender and SES. In addition, children who 'usually' drank fruit juice/drinks twice or more per day were 1.7 (95% CI 1.2-2.4) times more likely to be overweight/obese compared with those who drank these beverages once or less per week, adjusted for age, gender and SES. Although fast foods and packaged snacks were regularly eaten, there were no associations between weight status and consumption of these foods. CONCLUSIONS: Intake of sweetened beverages was associated with overweight and obesity in this population of Australian schoolchildren and should be a target for intervention programmes aimed at preventing unhealthy weight gain in children.     

Why do adolescents eat what they eat? Personal and social environmental predictors of fruit, snack and breakfast consumption among 12-14-year-old Dutch students

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the relative importance of personal and social environmental predictors of the consumption of fruit, high-fat snacks and breakfast. DESIGN: A school-based cross-sectional survey. Data were collected through written questionnaires. SETTING: Students from eight schools in the southern part of The Netherlands. SUBJECTS: Six hundred and one students from preparatory secondary vocational education schools. RESULTS: About a quarter of the variation in actual behaviours and intentions to change the behaviours could be explained. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that, for all three behaviours, higher intention to change was especially associated with a more positive attitude and subjective norm, and higher intentions to increase fruit intake with more positive self-efficacy expectations. With regard to actual consumption, a more positive attitude towards eating fruit was the only significant correlate of a higher consumption of fruit. A more positive attitude towards eating high-fat snacks, perceived lower intake of the mother, and higher food availability and accessibility were associated with consumption of high-fat snacks, and a more positive attitude to breakfast more frequently was associated with more frequent breakfast consumption. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that adolescents' attitudes are the most important determinants of different health-related eating behaviours and intentions to change. Interventions promoting a healthy diet for adolescents should include creative strategies to achieve positive associations with healthy dietary changes.     

High alcohol consumption in Germany: results of the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey 1998

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the alcohol consumption behaviour of the German adult population, with a focus on the characteristics of persons drinking more than the tolerable upper alcohol intake level (TUAL) of 10-12 g day(-1) for healthy adult women and 20-24 g day(-1) for healthy adult men. DESIGN AND SETTING: For the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey 1998, a representative sample of free-living adults was drawn. A total of 7124 participants were interviewed comprehensively about their sociodemographic background, lifestyle and eating habits including alcohol consumption. SUBJECTS: A sub-sample of 4030 women and men, 18-79 years old, who were involved in the integrated German Nutrition Survey. RESULTS: About 16% of women and 31% of men had mean alcohol consumption above the TUAL. Among other factors, the inclination to exceed the TUAL was related to middle-age, high socio-economic status, smoking and use of soft drugs. Among both women and men, a high proportion of persons drinking above the TUAL was observed among those consuming low amounts of soft drinks, fruit, poultry, milk products, bread and cake/biscuits. Women preferred to drink wine, whereas men preferred to drink beer. CONCLUSIONS: Many Germans have an alcohol consumption level above the TUAL and thus are supposed to be at increased risk for alcohol-associated diseases.     

The stability of soft drinks intake from adolescence to adult age and the association between long-term consumption of soft drinks and lifestyle factors and body weight

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the tracking of sugar-sweetened, carbonated soft drinks intake from age 15 to 33 years and the association between this intake and lifestyle factors and body weight. DESIGN: A longitudinal study with 18-20 years of follow-up. Data about diet, physical activity, smoking and dieting were collected in 1981/1979, 1991 and 1999. Body weight and height were measured in 1981/1979 and self-reported in 1999. SETTING: Oslo, Norway. SUBJECTS: Four hundred and twenty-two men and women. RESULTS: Tracking of soft drinks intake from adolescence into early adulthood (age 25 years) and from early adulthood into later adulthood (33 years) was moderate to high, while tracking from adolescence into later adulthood was low. Comparing those reporting a high intake of soft drinks in both 1991 and 1999 with those reporting a low intake at both times, male long-term high consumers were more likely to smoke (48 vs. 21%, P=0.002) and reported higher intakes of energy (12.2 vs. 10.2 MJ day(-1), P=0.005) and sugar (142 vs. 50 g day(-1), P<0.001) in 1999 than did long-term low consumers. Women high consumers were less likely to be physically active (14 vs. 42%, P=0.03) and had higher sugar intake (87 vs. 41 g day(-1), P<0.001) in 1999 than did women low consumers. There were no differences in body mass index, overweight or obesity in 1999 between long-term high and low consumers. CONCLUSION: In this study, stability of soft drinks intake from age 15 to 25 years and from age 25 to 33 years was moderate to high, while from age 15 to 33 years it was low. Soft drinks intake from age 25 to 33 years was associated with smoking and physical inactivity, but not with body weight.     

Obesity and related risk factors among low socio-economic status minority students in Chicago

OBJECTIVES: To assess overweight and related risk factors among urban low socio-economic status (SES) African-American adolescents in an attempt to study the underlying causes of ethnicity and gender disparities in overweight. METHODS: Cross-sectional data collected on anthropometric measures, diet, physical activity and family characteristics from 498 students in grades 5-7 in four Chicago public schools were analysed to study the risk factors for overweight using stepwise regression analysis. RESULTS: Only 37.2% of the students lived with two parents. Nearly 90% had a television (TV) in their bedroom, and had cable TV and a video game system at home. Overall. 21.8% (17.7% boys versus 25.1% girls) were overweight (body mass index (BMI) >/= 95th percentile); and 39.8% had a BMI >/= 85th percentile. Compared with national recommendations, they had inadequate physical activity and less than desirable eating patterns. Only 66.1% reported having at least 20 min vigorous exercise or 30 min of light exercise in >/= 5 days over the past 7 days; 62.1% spent >3 h days- 1 watching TV/playing video games/computer, while 33.1% spent >/= 5 h days- 1. Their vegetable and fruit consumption was low, and they consumed too many fried foods and soft drinks: 55.1% consumed fried food twice or more daily and 19.5% four times or more daily; 70.3% consumed soft drinks twice or more daily and 22.0% four times or more daily on average. Gender, physical activity and pocket money were significant predictors of overweight (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Several factors in the students' behaviours, school and family environments may increase overweight risk among this population. There is a great need for health promotion programmes with a focus on healthy weight and lifestyle, and targeting urban low-SES minority communities.     

Changes in consumption of sugars by English adolescents over 20 years

OBJECTIVE: Dietary surveys of 11- to 12-year-old Northumbrian children in 1980 and 1990 revealed that consumption of non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) was 16-17% of energy intake. This study reports dietary sugars consumption in 2000 and compares it with data collected in 1980 and 1990, using identical methods. DESIGN: A repeat cross-sectional dietary survey of children aged 1-12 years attending the same schools as in the 1980 and 1990 surveys. SETTING: Seven middle schools in south Northumberland. SUBJECTS: All children aged 11-12 years old attending the seven schools. METHOD: Food consumption was recorded using two 3-day diet diaries. Food composition tables were used to calculate energy and nutrient intakes. NMES, and milk and intrinsic sugars were calculated using previously described methods. RESULTS: The numbers of children completing the surveys in 1980, 1990 and 2000 were 405, 379 and 424, respectively; approximately 60-70% of eligible children. Total sugars provided 22% of energy consistently over the three surveys. NMES consumption in 2000 provided 16% of energy compared with 16% in 1980 and 17% in 1990. Sources of NMES changed over the three surveys. NMES from soft drinks doubled from 15 to 31 g day(-1), and from breakfast cereals increased from 2 to 7 g day(-1) over the 20 years. Confectionery and soft drinks provided 61% of NMES. Over 20 years, the proportion of energy from fat decreased by 5% and from starch increased by 4%, creating a welcome tilt in the fat-starch see-saw, without an adverse effect on sugars intake. CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of NMES in 2000 was substantially higher than recommended, and there has been little change over 20 years. Continued and coordinated efforts are required at a national, community and individual level to reduce the intake of NMES.     

Healthy whole-grain choices for children and parents: a multi-component school-based pilot intervention

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to pilot-test a school-based intervention designed to increase consumption of whole grains by 4th and 5th grade children. DESIGN: This multi-component school-based pilot intervention utilised a quasi-experimental study design (intervention and comparison schools) that consisted of a five-lesson classroom curriculum based on Social Cognitive Theory, school cafeteria menu modifications to increase the availability of whole-grain foods and family-oriented activities. Meal observations of children estimated intake of whole grains at lunch. Children and parents completed questionnaires to assess changes in knowledge, availability, self-efficacy, usual food choice and role modelling. SETTING/SAMPLE: Parent/child pairs from two schools in the Minneapolis metropolitan area; 67 in the intervention and 83 in the comparison school. RESULTS: Whole-grain consumption at the lunch meal increased by 1 serving (P < 0.0001) and refined-grain consumption decreased by 1 serving for children in the intervention school compared with the comparison school post-intervention (P < 0.001). Whole-grain foods were more available in the lunches served to children in the intervention school compared with the comparison school post-intervention (P < 0.0001). The ability to identify whole-grain foods by children in both schools increased, with a trend towards a greater increase in the intervention school (P = 0.06). Parenting scores for scales for role modelling (P < 0.001) and enabling behaviours (P < 0.05) were significantly greater for parents in the intervention school compared with the comparison school post-intervention. CONCLUSIONS: The multi-component school-based programme implemented in the current study successfully increased the intake of whole-grain foods by children.     

Explaining the effect of a 1-year intervention promoting physical activity in middle schools: a mediation analysis

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to examine the mediation effects of changes in psychosocial determinants of physical activity (attitude, social support, self-efficacy, perceived benefits and barriers) on changes in physical activity. DESIGN: One-year intervention study with baseline and 1-year post measures of physical activity habits and psychosocial correlates. SETTING: Fifteen middle schools. SUBJECTS: Boys and girls (n = 2840) aged 11-15 years completed the validated questionnaires during class hours. RESULTS: The product-of-coefficients test was used to asses the mediating effects. Self-efficacy for physical activity at school was found to be the only significant mediator of physical activity change. Specifically, self-efficacy for physical activity at school partly mediated the effect of the intervention on total and school-related physical activity change in the intervention group with parental support (P < 0.05). None of the other potential mediators, attitudes, social support, perceived benefits and perceived barriers, seemed to have had a positive effect. Even a suppressor effect was found for attitudes. Given that the effects of self-efficacy and attitudes were of opposite direction, the total mediated/suppressed effects of the intervention were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Positive changes in total and school-related physical activity in adolescents could be partly explained by increases in self-efficacy for physical activity at school through a physical activity intervention in middle schools with parental support. However, the suppressor effect of attitudes decreased this effect. As this is one of the first true mediation analyses in this age group, further research is needed to replicate the importance of these mediators.     

Associations between parental report of the home food environment and adolescent intakes of fruits, vegetables and dairy foods

OBJECTIVE: This study examines parental report of household food availability, parent dietary intake and associations with adolescent intakes of fruits, vegetables and dairy foods. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Adolescents completed the Project EAT survey and the Youth Adolescent Food Frequency Questionnaire at school. Parents of adolescents were interviewed by telephone about the home food environment, eating habits and weight-related behaviours. General linear modelling was used to compare dietary intakes of adolescents across different levels of household food availability and parental intakes. SUBJECTS/SETTING: The study sample included 902 adolescents and their parent or guardian. RESULTS: Many parents were not consuming the minimum number of daily recommended fruit (44.5%), vegetable (69.9%) or dairy (46.9%) servings. While most parents reported that fruits and vegetables were available at home (90.3%) and vegetables were usually served at dinner (87.0%), fewer parents reported milk was served at meals (66.6%). Soft drinks were usually available at home (56.8%). Among girls, household availability was positively associated with fruit and vegetable intake (ttrend=2.70, P<0.01) and soft drink availability was inversely associated with dairy intake (ttrend=2.08, P=0.04). Among boys, serving milk at meals was positively associated with dairy intake (ttrend=3.65, P<0.01). Parental intakes were positively associated with dairy intake for boys (ttrend=2.04, P=0.04), and with dairy (ttrend=2.43, P=0.01), vegetable (ttrend=3.72, P<0.01) and fruit (ttrend=3.17, P<0.01) intakes for girls. CONCLUSIONS/APPLICATIONS: Interventions designed to help adolescents improve consumption of fruits, vegetables and dairy foods may be enhanced by including a parental component aimed at increasing household availability and parents' intake of healthful food choices.     

Why do boys eat less fruit and vegetables than girls?

OBJECTIVE: To explore why boys eat less fruit and vegetables (F&V) than girls, using longitudinal data following pupils from the age of 12.5 to 15.5 years, including perceived accessibility, modelling, intention, preferences, self-efficacy and knowledge of recommendations as potential mediators. DESIGN/SETTING/SUBJECTS: A longitudinal study, based on data collected among the control schools within the intervention project 'Fruits and Vegetables Make the Marks'. This sample contains 896 6th and 7th graders from 20 randomly selected elementary schools within two Norwegian counties. Questionnaires were administered in May 2002 and May 2005 (when the participants were in 9th and 10th grade in 18 secondary elementary schools). RESULTS: In single mediation analyses all determinants mediated parts of the gender difference, but only preferences decreased the gender difference to a level below statistical significance. Preferences alone explained 81% of the gender difference. In the multiple mediation analyses, the six mediators together explained 91% of the gender difference, but only preferences and perceived accessibility contributed uniquely to the explanation, with 25% and 10% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Preference appears as the strongest mediator of the difference in F&V intakes between boys and girls. Further research should explore why girls like F&V more than boys.     

Six-week consumption of a wild blueberry powder drink increases bifidobacteria in the human gut

Wild blueberries are a rich source of polyphenols and other compounds that are highly metabolized by the intestinal microbiota and may, at the same time, affect the intestinal environment itself. A repeated-measure, crossover dietary intervention on human volunteers was designed to study the effect of six week consumption of a wild blueberry ( Vaccinium angustifolium ) drink, versus a placebo drink, in modulating the intestinal microbiota. Relative to total eubacteria, Bifidobacterium spp. significantly increased following blueberry treatment (P ≤ 0.05), while Lactobacillus acidophilus increased after both treatments (P ≤ 0.05). No significant differences were observed for Bacteroides spp., Prevotella spp., Enterococcus spp., and Clostridium coccoides . Bifidobacteria, which have been largely proposed to be of benefit for the host, appeared to be selectively favored suggesting an important role for the polyphenols and fiber present in wild blueberries. Results obtained suggest that regular consumption of a wild blueberry drink can positively modulate the composition of the intestinal microbiota.     

The role of parents' educational background in healthy lifestyle practices and attitudes of their 6-year-old children

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to examine parents' reported and desired frequencies (practices vs. attitudes) of their 6-year-old children's meals, nutritional intake and lifestyle components, as well as possible obstacles and desired support with respect to higher or lower educational backgrounds. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire study. SETTING: Five elementary schools in Uppsala, Sweden. SUBJECTS: Parents of 176 6-year-old pupils attending the first grade. The total response rate was 89.7%. RESULTS: Parents with a college degree reported that their 6-year-olds had a higher frequency of milk, fruit and vegetable intake, more physical activity and fewer hours watching television compared with parents with a secondary school degree. Congruent to these differences in reported practices, more parents with a college degree desired a higher frequency of milk, fruit and vegetable intake, more physical exercise and less television viewing for their children. Regarding parents' desired meal frequencies during the week, no differences between the groups with higher and lower levels of education were found. Despite similar attitudes, however, parents with a college degree reported that their children ate mostly all meals significantly more often during the week. Both parent groups stated lack of time as the most common obstacle in providing their children with desired lifestyle practices, although parents with a secondary school education added lack of money as a contributing factor. CONCLUSIONS: As attitudes are not always reflected in reported practices, it seems a fruitful approach to assess both, as well as obstacles perceived by parents, before planning interventions to enhance healthy lifestyle habits in children.     

Food consumption and nutrient intakes with a special focus on milk product consumption in early pubertal girls in Central Finland

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the current status of dietary intakes in early pubertal girls with a special focus on milk products. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data using 3-day food records. SUBJECTS: Eight hundred and sixty girls, aged 10-12 years, at Tanner maturation stage I-III. RESULTS: The mean consumption of milk products (620 g day(-1)) was similar to that of a Finnish study in the 1980s, while the consumption of non-milk drinks (403 g day(-1)) had increased. Twelve per cent of the girls had a dairy-restricted diet and consumed significantly less milk products than girls with a non-restricted diet (465 vs. 644 g day(-1), P<0.001). Girls with low milk product consumption had the highest non-milk drinks consumption (P<0.001). The mean energy intake was 7.1 MJ day(-1). No major changes were found in the sources of nutrients. The shares of energy for nutrients were close to recommendations except for saturated fat (13.9 vs. 10% of energy) and carbohydrates (51.5 vs. 55-60% of energy). The mean calcium intake (1117 mg day(-1)) was above the recommendation, while the vitamin D intake (3.1 microg day(-1)) of 88% of the girls was below the recommendation. CONCLUSIONS: The diet quality of early pubertal girls is close to the recommendations and has improved with respect to fat compared with the 1980s. Consumption of milk products is high although the consumption of non-milk drinks has increased. We found a subgroup of girls who compensate their low milk product consumption with a higher consumption of non-milk drinks. Following a dairy-restricted diet is the main reason for low consumption of milk products.     

酒类嗅觉鉴别系统的研制与试验

酒类食品的生产和消费在经济发展中占有十分重要的地位，其质量鉴别倍受社会关注。因此，准确、快速的鉴别方法及其鉴别系统(仪器)的研究是非常需要的。该文在简述酒类质量现有鉴别方法的基础上，提出了用人工嗅觉系统鉴别酒类质量时气敏传感器的选型准则和传感器阵列的组成方法。在采用一种RBF神经网络作为模式识别技术的同时，构造了一种人工嗅觉酒类鉴别系统。鉴别试验表明，该系统不仅能鉴别酒的种类，还能较好地鉴别同一种类不同质量等级的酒。由此证明了鉴别系统构造方法的合理性，并为该系统向着实用化、商品化方向发展奠定了一些技术基础。     

Associations between deprivation, attitudes towards eating breakfast and breakfast eating behaviours in 9-11-year-olds

OBJECTIVES: To examine school-level relationships between deprivation and breakfast eating behaviours (breakfast skipping and the healthfulness of foods consumed) in 9-11-year-old schoolchildren and to examine whether attitudes towards eating breakfast mediated these relationships. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: One hundred and eleven primary schools in Wales. SUBJECTS: Year 5 and 6 pupils within the 111 primary schools. Measures were completed by 4314 children. Analysis was conducted at the group (school) level, with each school representing one group. RESULTS: Deprivation was positively associated with breakfast skipping and consumption of 'unhealthy' items (i.e. sweet snacks, crisps) for breakfast. A significant negative association was found between deprivation and consumption of 'healthy' items (i.e. fruit, bread, cereal, milk). Deprivation was significantly inversely associated with attitudes towards eating breakfast. The relationships between deprivation and (1) breakfast skipping and (2) consumption of 'healthy' items for breakfast were mediated by attitudes towards eating breakfast. The hypothesis that attitudes mediated the relationship between deprivation and consumption of 'unhealthy' breakfast items was unsupported. CONCLUSIONS: Deprivation is associated with adverse breakfast eating behaviours amongst children aged 9-11 years, in terms of breakfast skipping and the quality of breakfasts consumed. Socio-economic differences in attitudes towards eating breakfast are apparent amongst this age group, and appear to relate to social gradients in breakfast eating behaviours. Research is needed to examine the causal nature of these trends and to elucidate factors underlying the development of socio-economic differences in eating-related cognitions.     

Gas-liquid chromatographic determination of adipic acid in crackling candy and soft drinks.

A procedure was developed for the simple and rapid determination of adipic acid in crackling candy and also in soft drinks. An alkaline solution of sample was extracted with ethyl ether to remove fatty substances, and H2SO4 was added to water layer to adjust the pH to less than 2. The acidified layer was saturated with NaCl and then extracted with ether. After drying, the ether layer was concentrated and the adipic acid in the concentrate was methylated using the diazomethane methograph equipped with a flame ionization detector. Recovery of adipic acid from crackling candy and from 2 kinds of soft drinks that had been fortified at the 200 ppm level was 96%. An interlaboratory test was carried out on the determination of adipic acid in orange soft drink. The results obtained by 6 laboratories were between 91 and 100% compared with the theoretical value.     

Consumption of fruit, vegetables, sweets and soft drinks are associated with psychological dimensions of eating behaviour in parents and their 12-year-old children

OBJECTIVE: We investigated associations between consumption of fruits, vegetables, sweets and soft drinks and the psychological dimensions of eating in parents and their children. The role of the parent's characteristics for their children's food intake was also explored. DESIGN: Food intake patterns were assessed by self-reported consumption of the respective foods. Eating behaviour was measured by the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire and self-esteem by Harter self-perception scale. The participants were 1441 families (mother, father and their 12-year-old child), and additionally 354 mothers and thirty fathers. RESULTS: Among parents, reported intake of fruit and vegetables were associated with restrained eating, higher self-esteem, and higher education and age. Intake of sweets was related to more external and less restrained eating, and for mothers also emotional eating. Parent's intake of soft drink was foremost related to a younger age, and also weakly associated with psychological characteristics. The food intake of parents was more important for the children's food intake than any other characteristics. However, children's intake of sweets showed clear-cut positive associations with external eating. CONCLUSIONS: Psychological dimensions of eating behaviour are associated with patterns of food intake, in particular for consumption of sweets, and are most prominent in the parents. The children's food intake mirrored their parents' intake. Being sensitive to external food cues may increase unhealthy food consumption in our society, whereas more restrained eating may indicate proneness or intention to healthier food choices among parents. Emotional eating may imply a proneness to consume sweets for comfort, in particular among mothers.