土壤可蚀性在WEPP模型中的应用

影响土壤侵蚀过程的关键因素是侵蚀力和土壤可蚀性。土壤可蚀性是定量计算土壤流失的重要指标和土壤侵蚀预报模型中的必要参数。WEPP是由美国农业部开发的新一代水蚀预测模型 ,该模型以土壤可蚀性为必要参数 ,并将其分解为细沟间可蚀性 (Ki)、细沟可蚀性 (Kr)和临界剪切力 (τc)来预报流域径流形成与土壤侵蚀过程     

黄土区坡耕地细沟间侵蚀和细沟侵蚀的研究

利用人工模拟降雨试验，通过在径流小区上覆盖纱网消除雨滴动能和增加雨滴除落高度来增加雨滴功能，并采用翻耕裸露作对照的试验处理，对黄土区坡耕地细沟间侵蚀和细沟侵蚀过程及其机理进行了研究。结果表明，坡面侵蚀产沙过程可明显的分为四个阶段，即溅蚀，细沟间侵蚀、细沟侵蚀和雨后径流侵蚀阶段。     

晋西黄土丘陵沟壑区坡面土壤侵蚀及预报研究

细沟间侵蚀是指坡面上细沟未形成之前或细沟形成之后细沟间的土壤侵蚀过程。细沟间侵蚀量预报是整个坡面水土流失预报的一个重要组成部分。本文以晋西黄土丘陵沟壑区的土壤侵蚀为背景,以野外及室内试验资料为基础,论述了降雨动能、土壤抗剪强度、坡度、植被、表土结皮对细沟间土壤侵蚀的影响,提出了坡面一次降雨细沟间侵蚀总量的预报模型。本模型与径流及细沟侵蚀量预报模型结合,可形成一个较为完整的坡面水蚀总量预报模型。     

降雨和径流条件下红壤坡面细沟侵蚀过程

为明确第四纪黏土发育红壤坡面侵蚀过程特征,采用人工模拟降雨和径流冲刷相结合试验,研究坡度、流量和降雨因素对坡面细沟侵蚀过程影响。结果表明:1)坡面侵蚀过程呈现明显阶段性,试验条件下侵蚀前3 min为层状面蚀为主的初始阶段,细沟出现后转变为细沟侵蚀为主的细沟发育阶段。降雨以及增加坡度和流量能加快细沟发育速度和侵蚀速率;2)各侵蚀阶段平均侵蚀速率关系为初始阶段细沟发育阶段细沟稳定阶段。初始阶段侵蚀速率对各水动力学参数响应关系为水流功率坡度水流剪切力单位水流功率=流速流量。细沟发育阶段平均侵蚀速率与水流功率、水流剪切力和坡度关系密切,而细沟稳定阶段侵蚀速率只与坡度和流量相关;3)水流功率是与初始阶段和细沟发育阶段关系最密切的水动力学参数,侵蚀初始阶段的层状面蚀、单独径流冲刷和降雨-径流作用下细沟侵蚀发生的临界水流功率分别为0.091、0.121、?1.691 N/(m·s)。试验在小尺度条件下初步揭示了红壤坡面细沟侵蚀过程特征,为南方红壤丘陵区土壤侵蚀预报模型和侵蚀防治提供理论参考。     

砾石含量对土壤可蚀性因子估算的影响

砾石(2 mm)是土壤组成部分之一,其含量对侵蚀产沙有重要影响。在土壤可蚀性因子(K)计算中充分考虑砾石含量的影响,计算所得土壤可蚀性因子会更加准确。利用30弧秒分辨率土壤砾石含量和土壤质地等级等数据,利用文献报道的砾石含量与土壤渗透性和土壤侵蚀关系估算方法,在全球范围内分析估算砾石含量对土壤可蚀性因子的影响。结果表明,(1)土壤剖面中砾石的存在,通过降低土壤入渗速率(土壤渗透性等级增加5.68%)、增加地表径流而使土壤侵蚀增加,进而使全球土壤可蚀性因子增加4.43%;砾石覆盖通过保护土壤免遭雨滴打击和径流冲刷减少侵蚀,在山地、荒漠(沙漠和戈壁)地区,这一影响会使土壤可蚀性值减小约18.7%。考虑土壤剖面砾石含量和表面砾石覆盖综合影响时,土壤可蚀性因子降低5.52%。(2)以砾石影响为主的地区,占全球62.7%,土壤可蚀性因子可降低0.0091(t·hm~2·h)·(hm-2·MJ~(-1)·mm~(-1));以剖面砾石影响为主的地区,占全球的31.1%,土壤可蚀性因子增加0.0019(t·hm~2·h)·(hm-2·MJ~(-1)·mm~(-1))。(3)剖面和表面砾石共同作用使6个样区土壤流失速率减少约11.8%。因此,剖面砾石的存在会增加土壤可蚀性,而表面砾石覆盖会减少土壤可蚀性,综合影响使土壤侵蚀降低。在区域土壤可蚀性制图研究中,应考虑这两个方面的影响,进而提高土壤可蚀性因子的制图精度。     

模拟降雨下黄土表土结皮的侵蚀响应

基于室内模拟降雨实验,对比分析有表土结皮、无表土结皮表面的溅蚀、坡面侵蚀过程,探讨表土结皮的侵蚀响应.结果表明,表土结皮对溅蚀量的影响与降雨历时有关,在短历时降雨(＜20 min)下,因有表土结皮表面存在松散细小颗粒,其溅蚀量大于无表土结皮表面;降雨历时＞20 min时,有表土结皮表面的溅蚀量表现出明显大于无表土结皮表面的趋势.有表土结皮表面的入渗率明显低于无表土结皮表面,因产流与入渗有紧密关系,表土结皮进而影响产流时间、产流量和产沙量;与无结皮表面相比,有表土结皮表面的产流时间提早,产流量快速增加,产沙量递增,易于发育细沟侵蚀.     

美国有关覆盖作物对水土流失影响的研究

在美国衣阿华大豆地中种植的燕麦、黑麦具有较强的减蚀作用。 1995～ 1997年 8月T C Kaspar等人在一块免耕的大豆地中种植了燕麦和黑麦 ,1996～ 1998年 4月在降雨强度为 12 5mm h的人工降雨后对该坡地的入渗、径流、细沟间侵蚀和细沟侵蚀进行了测定。为区分覆盖作物和车痕对土壤特性和入渗的影响 ,及其二者之间的关系 ,在覆盖作物种植前 ,在有无车痕的垄沟内进行了同样的测定。试验结果表明 :1996年覆盖作物对入渗、侵蚀没有影响 ;1997年燕麦和黑麦都减少了细沟间侵蚀 ,但是在 1998年只有黑麦增加入渗 ,并且减少了细沟间侵蚀和径流。无车痕与有车痕的垄沟相比具有较少的细沟间侵蚀、径流和较大的入渗。 1997年和 1998年燕麦和黑麦都减少了细沟侵蚀 ,但车痕对细沟侵蚀的影响没有测定     

坡地等高植物篱带间距对表土养分流失影响

等高植物篱带间距选择是坡地植物篱－农作系统的表土养分流失控制的重要一环,通过对植物篱带间养分流失的发展过程分析,认为在带间径注以侵蚀处于溅蚀公散－片流搬运为主的阶段时,篱前淤积层宽度应使水流流速衰减至小于一定粒径的土壤细颗粒的起动流速,才能有效减少养分流失,通过推导的一些公式估算,在三峡库区秭归县的植物篱试验区,带间距相当于细沟侵蚀发生的临界坡长（６m)时,天然降雨条件下片流侵蚀仍不足以侵蚀携带＜０.02mm的土壤颗粒,因此,细沟侵蚀是决定此类地区土壤细粒物质侵蚀的关键因素,从控制带间表土表失出发,等高植物篱带间距控制在细沟侵蚀发生的临界坡长以内。     

砾石含量对土壤可蚀性因子估算的影响研究

砾石（>2 mm）是土壤组成部分之一,其含量对侵蚀产沙有重要影响。在土壤可蚀性因子（K）计算中充分考虑砾石含量的影响,计算所得土壤可蚀性因子会更加准确。利用30弧秒分辨率土壤砾石含量和土壤质地等级等数据,利用文献报道的砾石含量与土壤渗透性和土壤侵蚀关系估算方法,在全球范围内分析估算砾石含量对土壤可蚀性因子的影响。结果表明,（1）土壤剖面中砾石的存在,通过降低土壤入渗速率（土壤渗透性等级增加5.68%）、增加地表径流而使土壤侵蚀增加,进而使全球土壤可蚀性因子增加4.43%;砾石覆盖通过保护土壤免遭雨滴打击和径流冲刷减少侵蚀,在山地、荒漠（沙漠和戈壁）地区,这一影响会使土壤可蚀性值减小约18.7%。考虑土壤剖面砾石含量和表面砾石覆盖综合影响时,土壤可蚀性因子降低5.52%。（2）以砾石影响为主的地区,占全球62.7%,土壤可蚀性因子可降低0.0091( t?hm2?h)?( hm-2?MJ-1?mm-1);以剖面砾石影响为主的地区,占全球的31.1%,土壤可蚀性因子增加0.0019( t?hm2?h)?( hm-2?MJ-1?mm-1)。（3）剖面和表面砾石共同作用使6个样区土壤流失速率减少约11.8%。因此,剖面砾石的存在会增加土壤可蚀性,而表面砾石覆盖会减少土壤可蚀性,综合影响使土壤侵蚀降低。在区域土壤可蚀性制图研究中,应考虑这两个方面的影响,进而提高土壤可蚀性因子的制图精度。     

秸秆还田阻控黑土侵蚀机理及效应

东北黑土区土壤侵蚀强烈发育,导致黑土地严重退化,直接威胁区域生态安全和国家粮食安全。秸秆还田是黑土区广泛采用的保护性耕作措施,具有明显的阻控土壤侵蚀、抑制土壤退化、提升退化黑土地生态生产功能的作用。本文在系统分析秸秆还田阻控细沟间、细沟、浅沟与切沟侵蚀机理,综合评价秸秆还田水土保持效应的基础上,提出了未来研究亟待加强的重点内容。秸秆还田阻控侵蚀的机理与侵蚀类型直接相关。秸秆覆盖消减降雨动能、抑制土壤物理结皮发育、维持土壤入渗性能、增加地表随机糙率、降低坡面径流流速、减小径流挟沙力和剪切力,是秸秆还田阻控细沟间和细沟侵蚀的直接作用。秸秆分解改善土壤理化性质、促进团聚体发育并提升其稳定性,引起作物生长特性变化,导致细沟间土壤可蚀性和细沟土壤可蚀性降低,土壤临界剪切力增大,是秸秆还田阻控细沟间和细沟侵蚀的间接作用。尽管秸秆还田阻控浅沟和切沟侵蚀的作用不如细沟间和细沟侵蚀那样直接,但仍可通过减小集水区径流侵蚀动力来降低浅沟和切沟发育风险。秸秆还田具有显著的水土保持效应,减流和减沙效益分别为28.0%~95.1%和40.3%~99.7%。但受不同试验条件差异的影响,研究结果可比性较差。未来亟需加强秸秆还田增加地表糙率与径流阻力、降低径流挟沙力水力学机理,土壤抗蚀性能对秸秆还田驱动土壤理化性质变化的响应机制,秸秆还田水土保持效应受土壤类型与坡度的影响及主控因素,秸秆还田阻控侵蚀的长期效应与空间分异,以及秸秆还田技术影响土壤侵蚀过程与机理等研究,为遏制黑土地退化、维持黑土区生态安全、保障国家粮食安全提供理论和技术支撑。     

Relative Contribution of Rill/Interrill and Gully/Channel Erosion to Small Reservoir Siltation in Mediterranean Environments

Reservoir siltation because of water erosion is an important environmental issue in Mediterranean countries where storage of clear surface water is crucial for their economic and agricultural development. The high density of gully systems observed in Mediterranean regions raises the question of their contribution to reservoir siltation. In this context, this study quantified the absolute and relative contributions of rill/interrill and gully/channel erosion in sediment accumulation at the outlet of small Tunisian catchments (0·1–10 km²) during the last 15 years (1995–2010). To this end, a fingerprinting method based on measurements of caesium‐137 and total organic carbon combined with long‐term field monitoring of catchment sediment yield was applied to five catchments in order to cover the diversity of environmental conditions found along the Tunisian Ridge and in the Cape Bon region. Results showed the very large variability of erosion processes among the selected catchments, with rill/interrill erosion contributions to sediment accumulated in outlet reservoirs ranging from 20 to 80%. Overall, rill/interrill erosion was the dominant process controlling reservoir siltation in three catchments whereas gully/channel erosion dominated in the other two catchments. We identified the presence of marly gypsum substrates and the proportion of catchment surface covered by soil management/conservation measures as the main drivers of erosion process variability at the catchment scale. These results provided a sound basis to propose guidelines for erosion mitigation in these Mediterranean environments and suggested to apply models simulating both rill/interrill and gully/channel erosion in catchments of the region. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between rock fragment cover and soil hydrological response in a Mediterranean environment

Rock fragments are a key factor for determining erosion rates, particularly in arid and semiarid environments where vegetation cover is very low. However, the effect of rock fragments in non-cultivated bare soils is still not well understood. Currently, there is a need for quantitative information on the effects of rock fragments on hydrological soil processes, in order to improve soil erosion models. The main objective of the present research was to study the influence of rock fragment cover on run-off and interrill soil erosion under simulated rainfall in Mediterranean bare soils in south-western Spain. Thirty-six rainfall simulation experiments were carried out at an intensity of 26.8 mm h⁻¹ over 60 min under three different classes of rock fragment cover (<50%, 50–60% and >60%). Ponding and run-off flow were delayed in soils with high rock fragment cover. In addition, sediment yield and soil erosion rates were higher in soils with a low rock fragment cover. The relationship between soil loss rate and rock fragment cover was described by an exponential function. After this first set of experiments, rock fragments were removed from sites with the highest cover (>60%) and the rainfall simulation experiments were repeated. The steady-state run-off rate and soil loss increased significantly, showing that run-off and soil erosion were partly conditioned by rock fragment cover. These results have significant implications for erosion modelling and soil conservation practices in areas with the same climate and soil characteristics.     

Effect of rock fragment cover on interrill soil erosion from bare soils in Western Andalusia, Spain

It is known that rock fragments on the surface of soils can enhance infiltration and protect the soil against rainfall erosion. However, the effect of rock fragments in natural forest soils is less well understood. In this article, we studied the influence of rock fragment cover on run‐off, infiltration and interrill soil erosion under simulated rainfall on natural bare soils in a Spanish dehesa (managed holm oak woodland). We studied 60 plots with different rock fragment cover ranging from 3% to 85% under three simulated rainfall intensities (50, 100 and 150 mm/h). Surface run‐off appeared later and sediment yield values were smaller in soils with greater rock fragment cover. Rock fragment cover also increased infiltration rates. The final infiltration rates were 54–98% at a rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h, 31–88% at 100 mm/h and 20–80% at 150 mm/h. The interrill soil loss rates were decreased by rock fragment cover and increased with rainfall intensity. The soil loss rate was always small (0.02–1 Mg ha/h) when rock fragment cover was 75% or more. Rock fragment cover was related to soil loss rate by an exponential function.     

Removal of rock fragments and its effect on soil loss and crop yield, Tigray, Ethiopia

Abstract. When the farmers of the Highlands of Tigray (northern Ethiopia) consider rock fragment cover in their fields to be excessive, they remove some of them. In addition, large amounts of rock fragments of all sizes are removed from fields for building stone bunds. Semi-structured interviews indicate that the farmers are often reluctant to take away the smaller rock fragments (i.e. < 5 cm across) from their fields, since they believe these benefit soil moisture conservation and protect topsoil from erosion. A field experiment was carried out on a Vertic Cambisol (average slope: 0.125 m m^–1), 2 km east of Hagere Selam (subhumid climate). Rock fragments were totally, partially or not removed from the 12 runoff plots (5 m × 6 m) before the beginning of the 1999 cropping season, during which a local mixture of wheat varieties ( Triticum spp.) was sown. After harvest, erosion rates were assessed by measuring deposited sediment volume in trenches at the lower side of each subplot, and grain and straw yields were assessed. We found a significant negative relationship between rock fragment cover and soil loss by water erosion. However, the resulting positive relationship between rock fragment cover and grain and straw yield was weak. This might be explained by the fact that the plot did not suffer from drought due to soil and climatic conditions. Detailed analysis showed that cover by medium and large rock fragments (> 2 cm diameter) showed an optimum percentage cover above which crop yields decrease. A recommendation resulting from this study is to rely on the farmers' experience: smaller rock fragments should never be removed from the surface of fields during soil and water conservation works; instead rock fragment rich soil can be used to top the stone bunds.     

7Be示踪坡耕地次降雨细沟与细沟间侵蚀

对于坡面细沟与细沟间侵蚀过程的了解是建立侵蚀预报模型的基础，但传统方法难以对其进行深入研究。利用7Be示踪技术并结合人工模拟降雨，考虑坡脚沉积作用，研究了25°坡耕地径流小区次降雨过程中细沟与细沟间侵蚀动态。结果表明：根据流出径流小区泥沙7Be含量变化计算坡面明显细沟出现时间，由于坡脚沉积作用使得A、B两试验小区这一时间比实际细沟出现分别延迟了45 min和11 min；根据坡面-侵蚀泥沙中7Be总量守恒和泥沙质量平衡原理，坡面细沟间侵蚀及细沟侵蚀在坡面总侵蚀、坡脚沉积区泥沙及流出径流小区泥沙中的比例被定量区分开；总体上，细沟间侵蚀量在径流泥沙中的比例逐渐减少，而细沟侵蚀量逐渐增加。两试验小区中7Be示踪计算坡面细沟侵蚀量和坡脚沉积量与实测值相比相对误差均较小，因此7Be示踪技术可以对土壤侵蚀进行较为准确地定量研究。     

Concentrated flow erosion rates as affected by rock fragment cover and initial soil moisture content

Concentrated flow experiments using a small hydraulic flume and a constant flow discharge and bed slope have been conducted in order to investigate the effects of rock fragment cover (Rc) on sediment yield for an initially wet and an initially air-dry loamy topsoil. The experimental results indicate that Rc reduces concentrated flow erosion rates (E) in an exponential way (i.e., E=e^−bRc), which is similar to previously reported relations for other water erosion processes such as interrill erosion and sheet-rill erosion measured on runoff plots. The decay rate (b) of this exponential relationship increased throughout the experiments because of scour-hole development and bed armouring. The concentrated flow erosion rates and b-values also depend on the initial moisture content of the topsoil. Depending on Rc, mean concentrated flow erosion rates were 20% to 65% less on initially wet compared to initially air-dry topsoils. The mean value for b was 0.032 for the initially wet, but only 0.017 for the initially air-dry topsoil, indicating that a rock fragment cover is less efficient in reducing concentrated flow erosion rates when the topsoil is initially air-dry than when it is initially wet. The results help explain the data scatter in reported relationships between Rc and interrill–rill erosion rates. They also indicate that a given surface rock fragment cover will offer more protection to wet topsoils than to dry topsoils, which are very common in Mediterranean environments. Event-based water erosion models should incorporate effects of antecedent soil moisture content as well as those of Rc on concentrated flow erosion rates.     

Comparing surface erosion processes in four soils from the Loess Plateau under extreme rainfall events

This research aims to improve erosion control practice in the Loess Plateau, by studying the surface erosion processes, including splash, sheet/interrill and rill erosion in four contrasting soils under high rainfall intensity (120 mm h⁻¹) with three-scale indoor artificial experiments. Four contrasting soils as sandy loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam and loamy clay were collected from different parts of the Loess Plateau. The results showed that sediment load was significantly impacted by soil properties in all three sub-processes. Splash rate (4.0–21.6 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹) was highest in sandy loam from the north part of the Loess Plateau and showed a negative power relation with the mean weight diameter of aggregates after 20 min of rainfall duration. The average sediment load by sheet/interrill erosion (6.94–42.86 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹) was highest in clay loam from middle part of the Loess Plateau, and the stable sediment load after 20 min showed a positive power relation with the silt content in soil. The average sediment load increased dramatically by rill and interrill erosion (21.03–432.16 g m⁻²∙min⁻¹), which was highest in loamy clay from south part of the Loess Plateau. The average sediment load after the occurrence of rill showed a positive power relation with clay content and a negative power relation with soil organic matter content. The impacts of slope gradient on the runoff rate and sediment load also changed with soil properties. The critical factors varied for different processes, which were the aggregate size for splash erosion, the content of silt particles and slope gradient for sheet/interrill erosion, and the content of clay particles, soil organic matter and slope gradient for rill erosion. Based on the results of the experiments, specific erosion control practices were proposed by targeting certain erosion processes in areas with different soil texture and different distribution of slope gradient. The findings from this study should support the improvement of erosion prediction and cropland management in different regions of the Loess Plateau.     

Quantifying spatial distribution of interrill and rill erosion in a loess at different slopes using structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry

The spatial distribution of interrill and rill erosion is essential for unravelling soil erosion principles and the application of soil and water conservation practices. To quantify interrill and rill erosion and their spatial development, four 30-min rainfalls at 90 mm h^?1 intensity were consecutively simulated on runoff plots packed with a loess at six slopes of 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30° and 35°. The soil surface was measured using the structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry upon each simulation run, and the runoff and sediment samples were collected and measured at every 10 min. Rills did not develop until the third simulation run. During the initial two runs, the lower third section was more severely eroded than the upper and middle thirds along the slope direction, yet the interrill erosion was statistically uniform from left to right. Rills tended to emerge by both sidewalls and in the lower portion in the third run. The corresponding rill erosion increased with slope from 10° to 20° and then decreased for the slopes steeper, which was consistent with the slope trend of the sediment yield directly measured. The rills expanded substantially primarily via head retreat and to a lesser extent via sideward erosion after receiving another 30-min rainfall. Rill erosion contributed 69.3% of the total erosion loss, and shifted the critical slope corresponding to the maximum loss from 20° to 25°. These findings demonstrate the significance of rill erosion not only in total soil loss but also in its relation to slope, as well as the effectiveness of SfM photogrammetry in quantifying interrill and rill erosion.     

Developing a magnetic tracer to study soil erosion

Soil erosion is commonly measured as the quantity of sediment leaving a plot or watershed. The techniques for measuring soil erosion patterns and sediment redistribution within plots or watersheds by direct monitoring are very limited. The objective of this study was to develop a direct and non-intrusive tracer method to study the sources, patterns and rates of erosion and deposition of sediments in erosion plots. The magnetic tracer developed in this study consisted of polystyrene plastic beads embedded with a magnetic powder (magnetite). The “magnetized” beads, with a mean weight diameter of 3.2 mm and particle density of about 1.2 g cm⁻³, were uniformly mixed with soil and tested in the laboratory using simulated rainfall and inflow studies to simulate the interrill and rill components of soil erosion, respectively. In the interrill and rill experiments, the tracer was transported in the same proportion it was initially mixed with the soil. Given this fact, a magnetometer, which measures the soil's magnetic susceptibility, could be used to identify areas of deposition or detachment. The magnetic susceptibility would be increased or reduced depending on whether deposition or detachment occurs. To simulate detachment and deposition, a magnetometer was tested for different tracer concentrations and different thickness of soil containing the tracer. The magnetometer promises to be a sensitive, accurate, and useful tool to study the spatial variation of soil erosion when magnetic tracers are used.