Offsetting global CO2 emissions by restoration of degraded soils and intensification of world agriculture and forestry

Increase in atmospheric concentration of CO₂ from 285 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1850 to 370 ppm in 2000 is attributed to emissions of 270 ± 30 Pg carbon (C) from fossil fuel combustion and 136 ± 55 Pg C by land‐use change. Present levels of anthropogenic emissions involve 6·3 Pg C by fossil fuel emissions and 1·8 Pg C by land‐use change. Out of the historic loss of terrestrial C pool of 136 ± 55 Pg, 78 ± 12 Pg is due to depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC) pool comprising 26 ± 9 Pg due to accelerated soil erosion. A large proportion of the historic SOC lost can be resequestered by enhancing the SOC pool through converting to an appropriate land use and adopting recommended management practices (RMPs). The strategy is to return biomass to the soil in excess of the mineralization capacity through restoration of degraded/desertified soils and intensification of agricultural and forestry lands. Technological options for agricultural intensification include conservation tillage and residue mulching, integrated nutrient management, crop rotations involving cover crops, practices which enhance the efficiency of water, plant nutrients and energy use, improved pasture and tree species, controlled grazing, and judicious use of inptus. The potential of SOC sequestration is estimated at 1–2 Pg C yr⁻¹ for the world, 0·3–0·6 Pg C yr⁻¹ for Asia, 0·2–0·5 Pg C yr⁻¹ for Africa and 0·1–0·3 Pg C yr⁻¹ for North and Central America and South America, 0·1–0·3 Pg C yr⁻¹ for Europe and 0·1–0·2 Pg C yr⁻¹ for Oceania. Soil C sequestration is a win–win strategy; it enhances productivity, improves environment moderation capacity, and mitigates global warming. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil carbon sequestration in sub‐Saharan Africa: a review

Restoration of degraded soils is a development strategy to reduce desertification, soil erosion and environmental degradation, and alleviate chronic food shortages with great potential in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). Further, it has the potential to provide terrestrial sinks of carbon (C) and reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO₂. Soil organic carbon (SOC) contents decrease by 0 to 63 per cent following deforestation. There exists a high potential for increasing SOC through establishment of natural or improved fallow systems (agroforestry) with attainable rates of C sequestration in the range of 0·1 to 5·3 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Biomass burning significantly reduces SOC in the upper few centimeters of soil, but has little impact below 10 to 20 cm depth. The timing of burning is also important, and periods with large amounts of biomass available generally have the largest losses of SOC. In cultivated areas, the addition of manure in combination with crop residues and no‐till show similar rates of attainable C sequestration (0 to 0·36 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Attainable rates of SOC sequestration on permanent cropland in SSA under improved cultivation systems (e.g. no‐till) range from 0·2 to 1·5 Tg C yr⁻¹, while attainable rates under fallow systems are 0·4 to 18·5 Tg C yr⁻¹. Fallow systems generally have the highest potential for SOC sequestration in SSA with rates up to 28·5 Tg C yr⁻¹. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon sequestration in dryland ecosystems of West Asia and North Africa

The West Asia–North Africa (WANA) region has a land area of 1.7 billion ha, and a population of 600 million. Desertification and soil degradation are severe problems in the region. The problem of drought stress is exacerbated by low and erratic rainfall and soils of limited available water holding capacity and soil organic carbon (SOC) content of less than 0.5 per cent. The SOC pool of most soils has been depleted by soil degradation and widespread use of subsistence and exploitative farming systems. The historic loss of a SOC pool for the soils of the WANA region may be 6–12 Pg compared with the global loss of 66–90 Pg. Assuming that 60 per cent of the historic loss can be resequestered, the total soil‐C sink capacity of the WANA region may be 3–7 Pg. This potential may be realized through adoption of measures to control desertification, restore degraded soils and ecosystems, and improve soil and crop management techniques that can enhance the SOC pool and improve soil quality. The strategies of soil‐C sequestration include integrated nutrient management (INM) and recycling, controlled grazing, and growing improved fodder species on rangeland. Improved technologies for cropland include use of INM and biofertilizers, appropriate tillage methods and residue management techniques, crop rotations and cover crops, and water and nutrient recycling technologies. Through adoption of such measures, the potential of soil‐C sequestration in the WANA region is 0.2–0.4 Pg C yr⁻¹. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A mass balance approach to assess carbon dioxide evolution during erosional events

The accelerated greenhouse effect and the degradation of land resources by water and wind erosion are two major, yet interrelated global environmental challenges. Accelerated decomposition of soil organic carbon (SOC) in cultivated soils results in decline in SOC stocks over time and also contributes to increased levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Off‐site transport of SOC in runoff waters during erosional events also contributes to SOC depletion, but there is a paucity of data in the literature documenting erosional SOC losses and the fate of eroded SOC. In this paper, we present a mass balance approach to compute CO₂ evolved from mineralization of SOC during transport and deposition of eroded soils. Erosion‐induced CO₂ emission rates ranging between 6 and 52 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ were computed using data on SOC stocks and dynamics from a series of long‐term experiments conducted across a range of ecological regions. For the cropland of the world, we estimated an annual flux of 0.37 Pg CO₂‐C to the atmosphere due to water erosion. This flux is significant and suggests that water erosion must be taken into consideration when constructing global and regional C budgets. Through its contribution to atmospheric CO₂ increase, water erosion can have a positive feedback on the accelerated greenhouse effect. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon sequestration in soils of central Asia

Problems of frequent drought stress, low soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration, low aggregation, susceptibility to compaction, salinization and accelerated soil erosion in dry regions are accentuated by removal of crop residues, mechanical methods of seedbed preparation, summer clean fallowing and overgrazing, and excessive irrigation. The attendant soil degradation and desertification lead to depletion of SOC, decline in biomass production, eutrophication/pollution of waters and emission of greenhouse gases. Adoption of conservation agriculture, based on the use of crop residue mulch and no till farming, can conserve water, reduce soil erosion, improve soil structure, enhance SOC concentration, and reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO₂. The rate of SOC sequestration with conversion to conservation agriculture, elimination of summer fallowing and growing forages/cover crops may be 100 to 200 kg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ in coarse‐textured soils of semiarid regions and 150 to 300 kg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ in heavy‐textured soils of the subhumid regions. The potential of soil C sequestration in central Asia is 10 to 22 Tg C y⁻¹ (16±8 Tg C y⁻¹) for about 50 years, and it represents 20 per cent of the CO₂ emissions by fossil fuel combustion. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The assessment of soil loss by water erosion in China

Soil erosion is a major environmental problem in China. Planning for soil erosion control requires accurate soil erosion rate and spatial distribution information. The aim of this article is to present the methods and results of the national soil erosion survey of China completed in 2011. A multi-stage, unequal probability, systematic area sampling method was employed. A total of 32,948 sample units, which were either 0.2–3 km² small catchments or 1 km² grids, were investigated on site. Soil erosion rates were calculated with the Chinese Soil Loss Equation in 10 m by 10 m grids for each sample unit, along with the area of soil loss exceeding the soil loss tolerance and the proportion of area in excess of soil loss tolerance relative to the total land area of the sample units. Maps were created by using a spatial interpolation method at national, river basin, and provincial scales. Results showed that the calculated average soil erosion rate was 5 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in China, and was 18.2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for sloped, cultivated cropland. Intensive soil erosion occurred on cropland, overgrazing grassland, and sparsely forested land. The proportions of soil loss tolerance exceedance areas of sample units were interpolated through the country in 250 m grids. The national average ratio was 13.5%, which represents the area of land in China that requires the implementation of soil conservation practices. These survey results and the maps provide the basic information for national conservation planning and policymaking.     

Carbon stocks in Ethiopian soils in relation to land use and soil management

The effect of soil management and land use change are of interest to the sustainable land management for improving the environment and advancing food security in developing countries. Both anthropogenic changes and natural processes affect agriculture primarily by altering soil quality. This paper reviews and synthesizes the available literatures related to the influence of soil management and land use changes on soil carbon (C) stock in Ethiopia. The review shows that topsoil C stock declines approximately 0–63%, 0–23%, and 17–83% upon land use conversion from forest to crop land, to open grazing, and to plantation, respectively. An increase of 1–3% in soil C stock was observed within 10 years of converting open grazed land to protected enclosures. However, there was a little change in soil C stock below 20 cm depth. There is a large potential of increasing SOC pool with adoption of land restorative measures. Total potential of soil C sequestration with the adoption of restoration measures ranges 0·066–2·2 Tg C y⁻¹ on rain‐fed cropland and 4·2–10·5 Tg C y⁻¹ on rangeland. Given large area and diverse ecological conditions in Ethiopia, research data available in published literature are rather scanty. Therefore, researchable priorities identified in this review are important. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Black soil degradation by rainfall erosion in Jilin,China

Black soils, originally characterized by a deep, dark A‐horizon, are widespread in the Northeast Plain of China and have been one of the most fertile agricultural resources in the country. However, more than a half‐century of intensified management degraded its productivity, mainly with the loss of the dark‐coloured A‐horizon by rainfall erosion. Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), the rainfall erosion losses of black soils in YuShu and DeHui counties of Jilin Province were estimated. The rate of loss of thickness of the A‐horizon of black soils and the time over which the A‐horizons of some black soils in the region might be lost were evaluated. The results showed that about 4–45 t ha⁻¹ topsoil could have been lost each year under corn (Zea mays L.) production. Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr) production would double the losses. Soil losses were directly related to soil type, tillage practices and crop grain yields. The thickness of the A‐horizon of black soils in the region decreased at rates of 0ċ5–4ċ5 mm yr⁻¹, depending on soil type and management practices. Corn production may have resulted in an annual loss of 8ċ3 million tonnes of topsoil from black soils alone in Jilin Province; soybean production could have greatly increased this loss. Traditional intensified farming can accelerate the degradation of black soils; conservation tillage has great potential to prevent rainfall erosion losses for the same soils. Accordingly, to preserve and restore the productivity of black soils, conservation tillage is appropriate and should be adopted in Jilin. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Re‐evaluating the biophysical and technologically attainable potential of topsoil carbon sequestration in China's cropland

To assess the topsoil carbon sequestration potential (CSP) of China's cropland, two different estimates were made: (i) a biophysical potential (BP) using a saturation limit approach based on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation dynamics and a storage restoration approach from the cultivation‐induced SOC loss, and (ii) a technically attainable potential (TAP) with a scenario estimation approach using SOC increases under best management practices (BMPs) in agriculture. Thus, the BP is projected to be the gap in recent SOC storage to either the saturation capacity or to the SOC storage of uncultivated soil, while the TAP is the overall increase over the current SOC storage that could be achieved with the extension of BMPs. The recent mean SOC density of China's cropland was estimated to be 36.44 t/ha, with a BP estimate of 2.21 Pg C by a saturation approach and 2.95 Pg C by the storage restoration method. An overall TAP of 0.62 Pg C and 0.98 Pg C was predicted for conservation tillage plus straw return and recommended fertilizer applications, respectively. This TAP is comparable to 40–60% of total CO₂ emissions from Chinese energy production in 2007. Therefore, carbon sequestration in China's cropland is recommended for enhancing China's mitigation capacity for climate change. However, priority should be given to the vast dry cropland areas of China, as the CSP of China is based predominantly on the dry cropland.     

中国农田表土有机碳含量变化特征——基于国家耕地土壤监测数据

通过对299个国家级耕地土壤监测点20余年数据的统计分析,评价了我国农田表土有机碳含量变化情况和固碳潜力。结果表明,全国约80％试验点有机碳年平均相对增长率（Average relative annual increment,ARAI）在-1．5％～7．5％。中国农田表土有机碳含量整体呈上升趋势。东北、华北等6个地理区域分析得出,华北、华东、西南农田表土有机碳含量显著增加;华东地区有机碳增加的农田面积占全国农田比例最大,东北最小。旱地和水田有机碳含量增加显著;水田有机碳增加的试验点所占比例大于旱地;对ARAI与初始有机碳含量进行相关分析得出,我国旱地和水田有机碳潜在储存能力估计值分别为17．2和27．7g·kg^-1。农田土壤类型中水稻土和褐土有机碳含量增加显著;黑土有机碳含量下降样本所占比例最高。对我国各典型种植制度分析得出,双季稻、麦-稻、麦-玉、单季小麦种植制度下农田有机碳有了显著增加;麦玉轮作较其他种植制度的农田有机碳年平均相对增长率高。     

Modelling the Effect of Land Management Changes on Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in a Mediterranean Cultivated Field

Land management in agricultural lands has important effects on soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics. These effects are particularly relevant in the Mediterranean region, where soils are fragile and prone to erosion. Increasing interest of modelling to simulate SOC dynamics and the significance of soil erosion on SOC redistribution have been linked to the development of some recent models. In this study, the SPEROS‐C model was implemented in a 1.6‐ha cereal field for a 150‐year period covering 100 years of minimum tillage by animal traction, 35 years of conventional tillage followed by 15 years of reduced tillage by chisel to evaluate the effects of changes in land management on SOC stocks and lateral carbon fluxes in a Mediterranean agroecosystem. The spatial patterns of measured and simulated SOC stocks were in good agreement, and their spatial variability appeared to be closely linked to soil redistribution. Changes in the magnitude of lateral SOC fluxes differed between land management showing that during the conventional tillage period the carbon losses is slightly higher (0.06 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) compared to the period of reduced till using chisel (0.04 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹). Although the results showed that the SPEROS‐C model is a potential tool to evaluate erosion induced carbon fluxes and assess the relative contribution of different land management on SOC stocks in Mediterranean agroecosystems, the model was not able to fully represent the observed SOC stocks. Further research (e.g. input parameters) and model development will be needed to achieve more accurate results. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of land use and salinization on soil inorganic and organic carbon in the middle-lower Yellow River Delta

Soil inorganic carbon (SIC) is an important reservoir of carbon (C) in arid, semi-arid, and semi-humid regions. However, knowledge is incomplete on the dynamics of SIC and its relationship with soil organic C (SOC) under different land use types in the semi-humid region, particularly in coastal zones impacted by soil salinization. We collected 170 soil samples from 34 profiles across various land use types (maize-wheat, cotton, paddy, and reed) in the middle-lower Yellow River Delta (YRD), China. We measured soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), water-soluble salts, and SOC and SIC contents. Our results showed significant differences in both SOC and SIC among land use types. The dry cropland (maize-wheat and cotton) soils had significantly higher SOC and SIC densities (4.71 and 15.46 kg C m^-2, respectively) than the paddy soils (3.28 and 14.09 kg C m^-2, respectively) in the 0–100 cm layer. Compared with paddy soils, reed soils contained significantly higher SOC (4.68 kg C m^-2) and similar SIC (15.02 kg C m^-2) densities. There was a significant positive correlation between SOC and SIC densities over a 0–100 cm soil depth in dry cropland soils, but a negative relationship in the paddy soils. On average, SOC and SIC densities under maize-wheat cropping were 15% and 4% lower, respectively, in the salt-affected soils in the middle-lower YRD than the upper YRD. This study indicated that land use types had great influences on both SOC and SIC and their relationship, and salinization had adverse effect on soil C storage in the YRD.     

基于Century模型和1:500 000土壤数据库的华东旱地土壤有机碳动态模拟

Changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils influence soil quality and greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Dry farmland covers more than 70% of the whole cropland area in China and plays an important role in mitigating carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In this study, 4109 dry farmland soil polygons were extracted using spatial overlay analysis of the soil layer (1:500000) and the land use layer (1:500000) to support Century model simulations of SOC dynamics for dry farmland in Anhui Province, East China from 1980 to 2008. Considering two field-validation sites, the Century model performed relatively well in modeling SOC dynamics for dry farmland in the province. The simulated results showed that the area-weighted mean soil organic carbon density (SOCD) of dry farmland increased from 18.77 Mg C ha1 in 1980 to 23.99 Mg C ha1 in 2008 with an average sequestration rate of 0.18 Mg C ha1 year?1. Approximately 94.9% of the total dry farmland area sequestered carbon while 5.1% had carbon lost. Over the past 29 years, the net SOC gain in dry farmland soils of the province was 19.37 Tg, with an average sequestration rate of 0.67 Tg C year1. Augmentation of SOC was primarily due to increased consumption of nitrogen fertilizer and farmyard manure. Moreover, SOC dynamics were highly differentiated among dry farmland soil groups. The integration of the Century model with a fine-scale soil database approach could be conveniently utilized as a tool for the accurate simulation of SOC dynamics at the regional scale.     

Soil Organic Carbon Accumulation in Abandoned Croplands on the Loess Plateau

The Grain to Green Program in China which began in 1999 led to the conversion of 0.64 million ha of cropland to grassland on steep sloping landscapes. However, the pattern of natural vegetation succession following cropland has not been well represented in previous regional syntheses of land use change effects on soil organic carbon (SOC). A chronosequence study focusing on the vegetation succession and soil carbon stocks was conducted in the center of the Loess Plateau. The chronosequence included fields of 0, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15 and 25 years of self‐restoration after cropland abandonment, as well as a natural grassland reference. Plant coverage, species richness and plant biomass increased significantly with time of cropland abandonment. Over time, the species composition more nearly resembled a natural grasslands community. Cropland abandonment replenished SOC stocks by 3.6 kg C m⁻² during the 25‐year self‐restoration, but the SOC accumulation was restricted to the upper soil profiles (0–60 cm). SOC accumulation rate was 88 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ in 0–30 cm and 55 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ in 30–60 cm soil depth, respectively. These carbon stocks were still significantly lower than those found in the natural grassland soil. Our results suggest that the recovery of plant communities and SOC stocks appears to be slow in this semiarid environment without revegetation effort along with appropriate field management, although the post‐agricultural soils have a high potential for carbon sequestration. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Potential of mine land reclamation for soil organic carbon sequestration in Ohio

Soils are an effective sink for carbon storage and immobilization through biomass productivity and enhancement of soil organic carbon (SOC) pool. The SOC sink capacity depends on land use and management. Degraded lands lose large amounts of C through SOC decomposition, erosion, and leaching. Thus, restoration of disturbed and degraded mine lands can lead to increase in biomass productivity, improved soil quality and SOC enhancement and sequestration. Reclamation of mined lands is an aggrading process and offers significant potential to sequester C. A chronosequence study consisting of 0‐, 5‐, 10‐, 15‐, 20‐ and 25‐year‐old reclaimed mine soils in Ohio was initiated to assess the rate of C sequestration by pasture and forest establishment. Undisturbed pasture and forest were used as controls. The SOC pool of reclaimed pasture sites increased from 15·3 Mg ha⁻¹ to 44·4 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–15 cm depth and from 10·8 Mg ha⁻¹ to 18·3 Mg ha⁻¹ for 15–30 cm depth over the period of 25 years. The SOC pool of reclaimed forest sites increased from 12·7 Mg ha⁻¹ to 45·3 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–15 cm depth and from 9·1 Mg ha⁻¹ to 13·6 Mg ha⁻¹ for 15–30 cm depth over the same time period. The SOC pool of the pasture site stabilized earlier than that of the forest site which had not yet attained equilibrium. The SOC sequestered in 0–30 cm depth over 25 years was 36·7 Mg ha⁻¹ for pasture and 37·1 Mg ha⁻¹ for forest. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Changes in carbon and nitrogen of Chernozem soil along a cultivation chronosequence in a semi‐arid grassland

Changes in the carbon (C) stock of grassland soil in response to land use change will increase atmospheric CO₂, and consequently affect the climate. In this study we investigated the effects of land use change on soil organic C (SOC) and nitrogen (N) along a cultivation chronosequence in the Xilin River Basin, China. The chronosequence consisted of an undisturbed meadow steppe, a 28‐year‐old cropland and a 42‐year‐old cropland (abbreviated as Steppe, Crop‐28 Y and Crop‐42Y, respectively). Crop‐28Y and Crop‐42Y were originally created on the meadow steppe in 1972 and 1958, respectively. The soil samples, in ten replications from three depth increments (0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm), were collected, respectively, in the two cropland fields and the adjacent undisturbed steppe. Bulk density, SOC, total N and 2 m KCl‐extractable mineral N including ammonium and nitrate were measured. Our results showed that the greatest changes in the measurements occurred in the 0–10 cm soil depth. The SOC stock in the upper 30‐cm soil decreased by 9.83 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Crop‐28Y and 21.87 Mg C ha⁻¹ in Crop‐42Y, which indicated that approximately 10 and 25% of the original SOC of the steppe had been emitted over 28 and 42 years, respectively. Similarly, the total N lost was 0.66 Mg N ha⁻¹ and 1.18 Mg N ha⁻¹, corresponding to approximately 9% and 16%, respectively, of the original N at the same depth and cropping duration as those noted for SOC. The mineral N concentration in the soil of both the two croplands was greater than that in the steppe soil, and the ammonium‐N was less affected by cultivation than the nitrate‐N. The extent of these changes depended on soil depth and cropland age. These effects of cultivation were much greater in the top 10 cm of soil than in deeper soil, and also greater in Crop‐42Y than in Crop‐28Y. The findings are significant for assessing the C and N sequestration potential of the land use changes associated with grassland conversion, and suggest that improved management practices are needed to sequester SOC and total N in the cropped soil in a semi‐arid grassland.     

Soil organic carbon in some land uses of Costa Rica

The native vegetation in the Tropics is increasingly replaced by crops, pastures, tree plantations, or settlements with contradictory effects on soil organic carbon (SOC). Therefore, the general objective was to estimate the SOC stock depth distribution to 100-cm depth in soils of Costa Rica and to assess their theoretical carbon (C) sink capacity by different management practices. A study was established in three ecoregions of Costa Rica: the Isthmian-Atlantic Moist Forest (AM), the Pacific Dry Forest (PD), and the Montane Forest (MO) ecoregions. Within each ecoregion, three agricultural land uses and a mature forest were sampled to 100-cm depth. The SOC stock in 0–100 cm depth was 114–150 Mg C ha^?1 for AM, 76–165 Mg C ha^?1 for PD, and 166–246 Mg C ha^?1 for MO. Land use had only weak effects on SOC concentrations and stocks except at PD where both were lower for soils under mango (Mangifera indica) and pasture. This may indicate soil degradation which was also supported by data on SOC stratification. However, it was generally unclear whether differences among land uses within each ecoregion already existed particularly at deeper depths before land-use change, and whether the sampling approach was sufficient to investigate them. Nevertheless, about 26–71% of Costa Rica's total C emissions may be offset by SOC sequestration in agricultural and forest soils. However, ecoregion-specific practices must be implemented to realize this potential.     

Soil Organic Carbon and Inorganic Carbon Accumulation Along a 30‐year Grassland Restoration Chronosequence in Semi‐arid Regions (China)

Carbon accumulation is an important research topic for grassland restoration. It is requisite to determine the dynamics of the soil carbon pools [soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC)] for understanding regional carbon budgets. In this study, we chose a grassland restoration chronosequence (cropland, 0 years; grasslands restored for 5, 15 and 30 years, i.e. RG5, RG15 and RG30, respectively) to compare the SOC and SIC pools in different soil profiles. Our results showed that SOC stock in the 0‐ to 100‐cm soil layer showed an initial decrease in RG5 and then an increase to net C gains in RG15 and RG30. Because of a decrease in the SIC stock, the percentage of SOC stock in the total soil C pool increased across the chronosequence. The SIC stock decreased at a rate of 0·75 Mg hm⁻² y⁻¹. The change of SOC was higher in the surface (0–10 cm, 0·40 Mg hm⁻² y⁻¹) than in the deeper soil (10–100 cm, 0·33 Mg hm⁻² y⁻¹) in RG5. The accumulation of C commenced >5 years after cropland conversion. Although the SIC content decreased, the SIC stock still represented a larger percentage of the soil C pool. Moreover, the soil total carbon showed an increasing trend during grassland restoration. Our results indicated that the soil C sequestration featured an increase in SOC, offsetting the decrease in SIC at the depth of 0–100 cm in the restored grasslands. Therefore, we suggest that both SOC and SIC should be considered during grassland restoration in semi‐arid regions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil restorative effects of mulching on aggregation and carbon sequestration in a Miamian soil in central Ohio

Soils play a key role in the global carbon cycle, and can be a source or a sink of atmospheric carbon (C). Thus, the effect of land use and management on soil C dynamics needs to be quantified. This study was conducted to assess: (1) the role of aggregation in enhancing soil organic carbon (SOC) and total soil nitrogen (TSN) concentrations for different mulch rates, (2) the association of SOC and TSN with different particle size fractions, and (3) the temporal changes in the SOC concentration within aggregate and particle size fractions with duration of mulching. Two experiments were initiated, one each in 1989 and 1996, on a Crosby silt loam (Aeric Ochraqualf or Stagnic Luvisol) in central Ohio. Mulch treatments were 0, 8, and 16 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ without crop cultivation. Soil samples from 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm depths were obtained in November 2000; 4 and 11 years after initiating the experiments. Mulch rate significantly increased SOC and TSN concentrations in the 0–5 cm soil layer only. The variation in the SOC concentration attributed to the mulch rate was 41 per cent after 4 years of mulching and 52 per cent after 11 years of mulching. There were also differences in SOC and TSN concentrations among large aggregate size fractions, up to 2 mm size after 4 years and up to 0ċ5 mm after 11 years of mulching. There were also differences in SOC and TSN concentrations among particle size fractions. Variation in the SOC concentration in relation to particle size was attributed to clay by 45–51 per cent, silt by 34–36 per cent, and to sand fraction by 15–19 per cent. Bulk of the TSN (62–67 per cent) was associated with clay fraction and the rest was equally distributed between silt and sand fractions. The enrichment of SOC and TSN concentrations in the clay fraction increased with depth. The C:N ratio was not affected by the mulch rate, but differed significantly among particle size fractions; being in the order of sand >silt >clay. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

过去20年中国稻田土壤有机碳变化的模拟研究

Changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) of rice paddies in China were simulated from 1980 to 2000 by linking a coupled bio-physical model to GIS database. The coupled model consists of two sub-models including Crop-C for simulating net primary productivity and hence residue retention and Soil-C for computing the turnover rates of SOC. The GIS database included parameters of climate, soils and agricultural activities with the resolution of 10 km × 10 km. Model simulation indicated that Chinese rice paddies covering 22.6 Mha sequestrated a considerable amount of C, about 0.15 ± 0.07 Pg C from 1980 to 2000. Annual sequestration rate increased sharply from -180 ± 45 kg C ha^-1 year^-1 in 1980 to 440 ± 170 kg C ha^-1 year^-1 in 1989. Thereafter, a steady sequestration rate of 460 ± 170 kg C ha^-1 year^-1 occurred till 1994 and declined since then. Approximately 84% of the Chinese rice paddies sequestrated carbon, while 15% lost carbon and 1% kept balance over the 20 years. Great SOC sequestration occurred in eastern, southern and central China, while a slight decline of SOC existed in some regions of northeastern and southwestern China.