Suitable characters for selective breeding in Eisenia fetida (Oligochaeta)

Selective breeding of invertebrates has been suggested by many but studied by few. The possibilities of improving characters like biomass, maturation time, coccoon production rate, and hatching success of cocoons for the earthworm Eisenia fetida were examined in the present study. The results showed that biomass, maturation time, and number of hatchlings could be successfully improved by selective breeding, although a concomitant tendency to a lower reproductive rate, as found in vertebrates, was observed. Other characters like cocoon production rate, hatching success, and number of hatchlings per cocoon also showed promising results.     

Case studies on breeding systems and its consequences for germplasm conservation

Summary This study gives the results of allozyme diversity within and among 20 wild Lima bean populations uniformly distributed throughout the Central Valley of Costa Rica. The electrophoretic analysis of seven enzyme systems show five monomorphic loci and a relatively low level of polymorphism for the other loci. This moderate level of polymorphism is unexpected for a species for which a fair amount of allogamy rates has been reported, at least among the cultivated forms. The genetic parameters (mainly percentage of polymorphic loci, mean genetic diversity, percentage of heterozygotes and fixation index) indicate a tendency for a predominantly selfing breeding system in the wild Lima beans although some values range between selfing and mixed-animal breeding systems. Very low within-population diversity is observed while a good diversity is found among populations. Results also show a departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium on most analyzed populations in the target site This might be due to populations divided into subpopulations among which no natural crosses occur randomly, to weeding practices or to overlap of generations within some populations. All the results obtained in this work are discussed in view of further studies for the planning of in situ conservation in a quickly evolving tropical environment.     

Trade-offs between on-farm varietal diversity and highly client-oriented breeding — a case study of upland rice in India

On-farm varietal diversity is now highest in marginal agricultural environments because, unlike the case in more favourable areas, modern varieties have not been a sufficiently attractive option for farmers to replace their landraces. However, the continued survival of landraces on farm is dependent on the continuing failure of plant breeding to provide better alternatives. Highly client-oriented breeding can produce suitable modern varieties for areas that were dominated by landraces. We examine here the case of the adoption of two upland rice varieties in three states in eastern India, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa, where our surveys had confirmed low adoption of modern varieties in the upland ecosystem. The two new upland varieties were readily accepted by farmers who rapidly adopted them on large proportions of their land. On-farm diversity is maintained by the need to trade-off among varieties but once a variety with overall superiority was found this incentive was removed. The new varieties from the client-oriented breeding did not have weaknesses that farmers had to trade-off against their landraces so they were more likely to replace them. They also replaced older modern varieties. Farmers had previously maintained them along with landraces because they had to trade-off the higher yield of Kalinga III against the more stable yield of landraces or the higher yield of Vandana against the higher gain quality of the landraces. Only mean count per household could be used to test the significance of the differences between individual years. In all states, this revealed a significant reduction in landrace diversity with the adopting farmers when the addition of the two new varieties was not considered. Trends across years for mean varietal count, total count and Shannon–Wiener index showed a significant decline in Orissa, irrespective of whether the two new varieties were included in the analysis or not. In Jharkhand there was a significant decline only for mean count when the new varieties were not included. In Orissa, it was possible to test if rare landraces were as readily replaced as more common ones. Landrace replacement was unmitigated by increasing rarity yet the most rare landraces have the highest priority for genetic conservation. Some landraces were completely replaced by the farmers in the sample despite a diverse variety portfolio being a risk-reducing strategy in a region where there is a high risk of crop failure. There was little environmental heterogeneity in the marginal, drought-prone areas to slow this decline. The new varieties had an impact on the farming system because sometimes farmers brought additional upland into cultivation. They also introduced these varieties into more favourable, medium land. The strategy of releasing two new upland varieties met with some success in maintaining diversity.     

An AFLP diversity study of the genus Passiflora focusing on subgenus Tacsonia

DNA variation was studied at the intra- andinterspecific levels within the genus Passiflora, with particular emphasis on the subgenusTacsonia and its relationship with the subgenusPassiflora. AFLP fingerprints were generated for35 accessions from 21 species, 14 of which belong to subgenusTacsonia, and four to subgenusPassiflora. The morphologically intermediateP. manicata (subgenusManicata) was also included, as wereP. trinervia (subgenusPsylanthus) and P.alnifolia (subgenus Decaloba). The two latter were used as outgroup species. Twoprimer combinations generated 34–80 scorable fragments pergenotype for a total of 260 fragments. Polymorphism analyses spannedthe levels from individual genotype to section. SubgenusTacsonia presented wide genetic variability atboth intra- and interspecific levels, particularly within wildspecies. The classification based on these markers generally agreeswell with current taxonomic definitions of common species, but lesswith definitions of sections. A geographical component was evident inthe intraspecific variation of P.mixta, P.tripartita var. mollissimaand P. tarminiana, withwider variation in Ecuador and Peru than in Colombia and Venezuela.These same three species, plus P.cumbalensis, formed adjacent clusters, showingcloser affinity with each other than with the other species ofsubgenus Tacsonia. As expected, P. manicata clustered at anintermediate position between subgenera Tacsoniaand Passiflora.     

Relationships Among <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica napus</Emphasis> (L.) Germplasm from Spain and Great Britain as Determined by RAPD Markers

The genetic diversity and the relationships among a collection of Brassica napus L. European populations were evaluated using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. The study included 33 accessions of B. napus collected from Galicia (northwestern Spain) and 18 British cultivars, 16 accessions of B. napus and two accessions of Brassica oleracea L. used as controls. DNA from 25 individuals per population was analyzed using 18 decamer primers. One hundred thirty-eight amplification products were scored of which 105 were polymorphic. These bands ranged in size from 350 to 2500 base pairs. Similarity coefficients and cluster analysis were computed and six groups were obtained. Cluster I was the largest and included all the landraces from northwestern Spain, except two accessions that grouped separately into Clusters III and IV, respectively. A low level of genetic variability was detected among the B. napus Spanish genotypes, while considerable diversity was present among the British ones, which grouped into three groups, two main clusters and one group formed by one accession. Cluster II included all commercial varieties grown in Great Britain whereas Cluster V grouped local varieties maintained by the growers for many years. Cluster VI was a singularity formed by one entry. British accessions of B. oleracea had the greatest dissimilarity with all the other populations and grouped separately in Clusters VII and VIII. As conclusion, B. napus landraces used in northwestern Spain as leafy-green vegetable probably have an independent origin from B. napus crops grown in other European regions. Besides, separate domestication in northwestern Spain and Great Britain for a different end use might have led to two distinct gene pools.     

重度火烧对兴安落叶松林群落物种组成及多样性的影响

[目的]研究重度火烧对兴安落叶松林群落物种组成及多样性的影响,为探索森林生态系统恢复与重建提供依据。[方法]以内蒙古大兴安岭兴安落叶松林重度火烧迹地为研究对象,采用分层取样的方法对群落中植被进行调查,分析比较不同恢复年份后兴安落叶松林群落各层物种组成及多样性的差异。[结果]不同恢复年份后群落各层α多样性指数总表现为:草本层灌木层乔木层的趋势。群落物种总数随着恢复时间的推移呈逐渐增多的趋势,这种变化趋势主要出现在草灌层内。群落草本层物种数除1996S(12种)以外(S表示重度火烧迹地,1996S为1996年重度火烧迹地,下同),其他3个恢复年份2012年(4种)、2009年(7种)、2003年(7种)均小于对照(CK,未过火区)(8种),而群落灌木层物种数除2003年(2种)与对照(2种)相当,其他3个恢复年份2012年(4种)、2009年(7种)、2003年(7种)均大于对照。[结论]总体来看,重度火干扰有利于植被的更新与演替。     

Comparative Analysis of Genetic Diversity in Two Tunisian Collections of Fig Cultivars Based on Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA and Inter Simple Sequence Repeats Fingerprints

This study characterized the genetic diversity of 18 Tunisian fig cultivars using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR). Both random and ISSR primers tested generated a total of 116 RAPD and 47 ISSR markers. Considerable genetic variation was observed among fig cultivars sampled from two regional Tunisian collections with an average diversity of 4.57. RAPD and ISSR banding patterns and genetic distances values reflected the high level of diversity among the collections and lower variability between the two collections. The correlation between the RAPD and ISSR similarity matrices computed for the 153 pairwise comparisons among the 18 varieties was lower and significant. An analysis of molecular variance showed that 92% of the total genetic diversity resided within collections, whereas only 8% between collections. The results indicated that in the local fig germ plasm the information provided by RAPD and ISSR is not analogous, most likely as a consequence of the fact that the two classes of markers explore, at least in part, different portions of the genome.     

Molecular diversity of Omani wheat revealed by microsatellites: I. Tetraploid landraces

Results of archaeological studies indicate a millennia-old cultivation history for wheat (Triticum spp.) in Oman. However, in spite of numerous collection surveys and efforts for phenotypic characterization of Omani wheat landraces, no attempts have been made using molecular tools to characterize this germplasm. To fill this gap, 29 microsatellite markers revealing 30 loci were used to study the genetic diversity of 38 tetraploid wheat landrace accessions comprising the species T. dicoccon, T. durum and T. aethiopicum. A total of 219 alleles were detected whereby the number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 16 with an average number of 7.1 alleles per locus. The highest number of alleles occurred in the B genome with on average 7.9 alleles per locus as compared to the A genome with 6.5 alleles per locus. Heterogeneity was detected for all microsatellites except for GWM 312, GWM 601 and GWM 192B with an average heterogeneity over all primers and lines of 14.4%. Approximately 10% of the accessions contained rare alleles with an average allele frequency <4%. Gene diversity across microsatellite loci ranged from 0.26 to 0.85. The pairwise comparison of genetic similarity ranged from 0.03 to 0.91 with an average of 0.2. Cluster analysis revealed a clear separation of the two species groups T. dicoccon versus T. durum and T. aethiopicum. Within the species clusters regional patterns of subclustering were observed. Overall, this study confirmed the existence of a surprisingly high amount of genetic diversity in Omani wheat landraces as already concluded from previous morphological analyses and showed that SSR markers can be used for landraces’ analysis and a more detailed diversity evaluation.     

Optimum Sample Size for Estimating Gene Diversity in Wild Wheat using AFLP Markers

Genetic diversity in five wild types of wheat was estimated using Simpson's index (based on heterozygosity) applied to data from AFLP markers. For such studies, the cost of obtaining the required information increases both with the number of samples required to estimate diversity and with the number of markers used. When the population studied is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE), allelic frequencies follow the binomial expansion and parametric methods can be used to calculate the variance of the diversity index in terms of the number of individuals sampled. Inbred species are never in HWE. With regard to such populations, this study addresses the question of the sample size required to estimate gene diversity using a distribution-free re-sampling method. We studied populations of five wild species (Aegilops speltoides, Triticum urartu, Triticum boeoticum, Triticum dicoccoides, and Triticum araraticum) as sources of diversity. We used bootstrap re-sampling with varying sample sizes to develop a relationship between the precision of the diversity estimate and the sample size. Such a relationship was used to determine the samples required for capturing a given amount of diversity and its precision. We found that 5–6 samples are sufficient to obtain a standard error equal to 10% of the diversity in the populations of the species Ae. speltoides, T. dicoccoides and T. araraticum. However, more than 12 samples would be needed for populations of T. urartu and T. boeoticum. The procedure presented here can be used to obtain the optimum sample size for other crop species as well.     

Genetic diversity in sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] in relationship to geographic sources as assessed with RAPD markers

Available evidence shows that sweetpotato originated from either Central or South American lowlands with subsequent dispersal to North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and the pacific islands. A total of 71 polymorphic RAPD molecular markers were used to assess the genetic relationships amongst 74 sweetpotato varieties originating from a total of 23 sweetpotato producing countries within six geographical regions, namely, South America, Central America/Caribbean, United States of America (USA), East Africa, Asia and Oceania. An Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) indicated that 93.4% of the total variance was due to the differences between genotypes within regions. The difference between regions was significant (P < 0.001) but only contributed 6.6% to the variance. Genetic distance (PhiST) calculated with AMOVA and multidimensional scaling (MDS) revealed that the South American and the Central American/Caribbean genotypes formed two separate clusters. East African varieties, which have unique characteristics from other traditional varieties, were distinct from other traditional varieties from South America and Oceania. These results support the reported hypothesis of the origin and dispersal of the sweetpotato and indicate that the primary centre of diversity probably has two distinct genepools. It is proposed that the dispersal of the sweetpotato from its origin may have mainly involved varieties from Central America/Caribbean as opposed to varieties from South America. There is an indication that new genepools may be evolving in Africa and Asia due to hybridisation and adaptation to the local environments.     

Analysis of genetic diversity and relationships of wild <Emphasis Type="Italic">Guizotia</Emphasis> species from Ethiopia using ISSR markers

Genetic relationships and diversity of 45 Guizotia populations each consisting of ten individuals and belonging to five taxa of the genus Guizotia were analyzed using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. Five ISSR primers generated a total of 145 scorable bands across the 450 individuals used for the study. The percent polymorphic loci for the taxa ranged from 68.2 (G. arborescens) to 88% (G. scabra ssp. schimperi), with G. scabra ssp. scabra, G. zavattarii and G. villosa following G. scabra ssp. schimperi in this order with respect to the abundance of percent polymorphic loci. The Shannon-Weaver diversity indices (H′), for the five taxa also followed a similar pattern, with G. scabra ssp. schimperi exhibiting the highest H′ (0.7373) and G. arborescens the least (0.5791), while H′ for G. scabra ssp. scabra, G. villosa and G. zavattarii were 0.7313, 0.6620 and 0.6564, respectively. The least genetic distance (0.1188) was observed between G. scabra ssp. schimperi and G.villosa, revealing closer genetic relationships of the two species with each other than with the others, and the highest genetic distance (0.2740) was observed between G. scabra ssp. schimperi and G. zavattarii. The unweighted pair group method using the arithmetic average clustering of the five taxa using the standard genetic distances produced two clusters, with G. scabra ssp. schimperi and G. villosa occurring in one cluster and G. scabra ssp. scabra, G. arborescens and G. zavattarii together in the other cluster. The study reveals that G. scabra ssp. schimperi is more closely related to G. villosa than to G. scabra ssp. scabra.     

Marker-assisted optimization of an expert-based strategy for the acquisition of modern lettuce varieties to improve a genebank collection

To regularly improve the composition of the lettuce collection of the Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands (CGN) with modern varieties, feedback from crop experts is used to select approximately 10% of the new material for incorporation in the collection. In the present study, assessments of six experts were compared to microsatellite data of 414 new varieties and 1408 existing accessions. Based on the microsatellite data, the extent to which the genetic diversity of the collection would be enriched (added value) was calculated for specific sets of new varieties. When individual assessments of experts were evaluated, the total added value of expert-based selections was not significantly higher compared to randomly chosen groups, except for a single expert. Unfamiliarity with new varieties was shown to be a crucial factor in the assessment of crop experts. According to the current acquisition protocol that seeks for consensus among experts, varieties are selected based on recommendations from at least three experts. This protocol also did not perform better than randomly chosen groups of new varieties. However, significantly better results were obtained with alternative protocols. It was concluded that breeding value was a more decisive criterion in the current acquisition protocol than maximal extension of the genetic diversity within the collection. A modified protocol addressing both commercial and diversity aspects was suggested in order to meet the demands of plant breeders as well as conservationists.     

Genetic diversity of the complex Paspalum notatum Flügge (Paniceae: Panicoideae)

The genus Paspalum L. comprises approximately 400 species worldwide and about 220 in Brazil. Paspalum is ecologically and economically important, and has been very useful as pasture and P. notatum Flügge (bahiagrass) is a valuable forage grass in the subtropics. This species consists of several sexual (diploid) and apomictic (tetraploid, ocasionally tri and pentaploids) biotypes. In this work, inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers were used to assess the genetic variability of a bahiagrass (P. notatum) collection. Vegetative tissues of 95 bahiagrass accessions were obtained from various locations in South America (Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay). A total of 91 reproducible ISSR fragments were observed and 89 fragments (97.5% of the total observed) were polymorphic. Cluster analyses (UPGMA) were performed from the ISSR data set and the results illustrate the genetic relationships among the 95 accessions of P. notatum. A comparison among molecular, morphological and ploidy levels data were done. ISSR markers were effective in distinguishing the genotypes analyzed, and a wide variability was observed for this species. These results add new information regarding the genetic diversity in P. notatum, thus contributing toward the biological knowledge of this species, and providing with subsides for future plant breeding and conservation programs.     

章古台地区樟子松人工林林下草本植物群落动态

[目的]探究樟子松人工林林龄与林下草本植物多样性指数的关系,分析樟子松林林下草本植物群落动态,为樟子松林下的植被管理提供参考。[方法]以科尔沁沙地南部章古台地区不同林龄(8,18,27,35,48a)樟子松人工林为研究对象,调查林下草本植被的植物种类、数量、盖度和生物量特征,定量分析林龄对林下草本植物的影响。[结果]在樟子松人工林林下,马唐Digitaria sanguinalis的重要值高于其它草本植物,能更好地适应林下环境,是最主要的优势种。随着樟子松林龄的增长,林下草本植被的生物量和多样性呈先减少后增加的趋势,其中27a生樟子松林的林下草本植被生物量和多样性最低。林龄与Patrick丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou均匀度指数和Simpson优势度指数均呈显著的二元回归关系。[结论]樟子松人工林中龄林与近熟林林下草本植被存在退化现象,需要通过间伐、中耕、围封等方法人工促进草本植被的生长与演替。     

基于能值分析的马尾松低效林林下种草养鸡耦合模式评价

马尾松低效林是红壤侵蚀区典型植被类型。林下种草养鸡则是林下种草与林下养鸡的耦合新模式,既能解决马尾松林下水土流失问题,又能提高经济效益,实现生态种养循环,驱动水土流失治理。为科学评价马尾松低效林林下种草养鸡模式的生态经济效益,本文应用能值分析法,测评福建省长汀县三洲镇垌坝村传统林下养鸡(对照)、林下种草养鸡两种模式的能值自给率、能值投资率、净能值产出率、环境负载率、可持续发展指数和能值反馈率。结果表明,传统林下养鸡模式的能值自给率、能值投资率、净能值产出率、环境负载率、可持续发展指数和能值反馈率分别为0.860、0.166、2.125、3.380、0.629和0.026,林下种草养鸡模式上述指标值分别为0.400、1.510、0.870、1.370、0.635和0.290。林下种草养鸡模式的能值投资率、可持续发展指数比对照提高1.344和0.006个单位,显示更强的经济活力;能值自给率、环境负载率比对照下降0.460、2.010个单位,显示更低的环境负载。林下种草养鸡模式的净能值产出率低于对照1.255个单位,而能值反馈率高出对照0.264个单位。总体而言,林下种草养鸡耦合模式经济活力更强,环境负载更低,符合脆弱区林下经济发展趋势。侵蚀区土壤结构性差,限制了从系统外导入的化肥在循环系统中功能的发挥,导致系统净能值产出率、能值反馈率较低,这为该模式的优化指明了方向。     

The paradox of keystone species persecuted as pests: A call for the conservation of abundant small mammals in their native range

Small mammals, such as European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) and prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), traditionally have been perceived as pests and targeted for control within their native ranges, where they perform essential ecosystem roles and are considered keystone species. These species can reach high densities, and have been subjected to eradication campaigns because of their putative negative impact on natural habitats and agriculture and their competition with livestock for forage. Eradication programmes have been a main factor causing sharp declines of these species in their natural ranges. Paradoxically, they are keystone species where they are abundant enough to be perceived as pests. The term “pest” is usually a social perception that is rarely supported by scientific data, whereas there is considerable scientific evidence of the key ecological roles played by these species. We call for the conservation of these species and present a conceptual model regarding the management of their populations. Where they occur at high numbers, and hence their effects on biodiversity are still of crucial importance, the persecution of these species should be avoided and their natural habitats preserved. In areas with high conservation value, but where these species occur at low densities, management efforts should aim to increase their density. In areas of high commercial value, managers ideally should consider changing prioritization of the area to high conservation value by purchasing the land or obtaining conservation easements. In situations with high commercial value and demonstrable low conservation concern, small mammals could be reduced humanely.     

转碱蓬SsNHX1基因烟草的耐盐抗旱性研究

烟草是重要的模式植物和经济作物,盐害和干旱两种环境因子对其生长发育、产量和品质都危害很大。为了提高烟草的耐盐抗旱性,本研究利用农杆菌介导的遗传转化法在烟草中过量表达了碱蓬液泡膜Na~+/H~+逆向转运基因SsNHX1,对转基因烟草的耐盐及抗旱性进行表型鉴定和各项生化指标的检测,以期得到耐盐抗旱表性良好的SsNHX1转基因烟草。表型分析发现,SsNHX1基因过表达株系L1和L5的抗盐能力比野生型显著提高,表现为盐胁迫条件下仍能保持旺盛的生长且根系的伸长未受抑制。SsNHX1过表达株系在叶片和根系中积累了更多的Na~+和K~+,同时Na~+含量增长速率较快,而K~+含量降低速率较缓,并可维持较高的叶片相对含水量和叶绿素含量,及较低的丙二醛含量和相对电导率。干旱胁迫发现,过表达株系受干旱胁迫程度更小,并在复水后迅速恢复正常生长。同时,过表达株系的丙二醛含量和相对电导率显著低于野生型,且维持了较高的叶片相对含水量及叶绿素含量。这些结果说明SsNHX1基因在烟草中过量表达后,降低了盐胁迫和干旱胁迫对烟草根系及细胞膜的损伤,并通过调节离子含量、降低细胞的渗透势,维持了叶片较高的相对含水量和叶绿素含量,最终提高了烟草的抗盐和抗旱性。     

Intra-specific DNA polymorphism in pineapple (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ananas comosus</Emphasis> (L.) Merr.) assessed by AFLP markers

Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) cultivars, often derived from somatic mutations, are propagated vegetatively. It has been suggested by isozyme data that there is little genetic variation among Smooth Cayenne cultivars. A thorough investigation of the genetic variation within the cultivated speciesAnanas comosus, particularly among commercial cultivars, will provide critical information needed for crop improvement and cultivar protection. One-hundred and forty-eight accessions ofA. comosus and 14 accessions of related species were evaluated with AFLP markers. The average genetic similarity ofA. comosus was 0.735 ranging from 0.549 to 0.972, suggesting a high degree of genetic variation within this species. With AFLP markers, discrete DNA fingerprints were detected for each commercial cultivar, breeding line, and intra-specific hybrid. Self-incompatibility, high levels of somatic mutation, and intraspecific hybridization may account for this high degree of variation. However, major cultivar groups of pineapple, such as Cayenne, Spanish, and Queen, could not be distinctively separated. These cultivar groups are based on morphological similarity, and the similar appearance can be caused by a few mutations that occurred on different genetic background. Our results suggest that there is abundant genetic variation within existing pineapple germplasm for selection, and discrete DNA fingerprinting patterns for commercial cultivars can be detected for cultivar protection. The genetic diversity and relationships of fourAnanas species are also discussed.     

On the use of SSR markers for the genetic characterization of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agropyron cristatum</Emphasis> (L.) Gaertn. in Northern China

Genetic diversity of 69 populations of Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn. originated from various regions of northern China was analyzed using 29 polymorphic microsatellite primers that were mapped on the wheat genome. The number of polymorphic bands ranged from 2 (Xgwm285, Xgwm43, Xgwm291, and Xgwm257) to 27 (Xgwm314) with an average of 10.480. The highest genetic diversity value was detected in the populations from Xinjiang Province (0.735), and the lowest was observed in populations from Qinghai Province (0.553). The proportion of diversity among and within regions was 16.9% and 83.1% of the total variation, respectively. According to the dendrogram generated by UPGMA cluster analysis based on Nei’s genetic distance matrix, all the populations of A. cristatum were distinctly clarified. At the Nei’s distance of 0.62, the populations were divided into 6 groups. The phenogram indicated that populations from similar ecogeographical regions were clustered together. The principal coordinate analysis showed that the populations from Inner Mongolia were more closely related to each other, and were less variable than the populations from Xinjiang Province.