Variation of extractives content in heartwood and sapwood of Eucalyptus globulus trees

The variation in extractives content in sapwood and heartwood was investigated among 12 trees in each of four commercial plantations of Eucalyptus globulus in central Portugal. The study was carried out at the 15% height level and extractions used successively dichloromethane, ethanol and water. At all sites, heartwood had significantly more extractives than sapwood, on average 3.8 and 2.4%, respectively. Most extractives consisted of ethanol soluble material (on average 52% of total extractives). Among the sites, there was a statistically significant difference in the content of extractives but the most important source of variation was the within-tree variation between sapwood and heartwood. Differences in the content of extractives were also observed among trees. A strong relation between extractives content and heartwood proportion was found. The potential loss of pulp yield and problems associated with accumulation of extractives are directly related to the heartwood proportion in the eucalypt stems. Forest management should take into account heartwood development and selection for minimising heartwood extractives.     

Integration of sapflow velocity to estimate plant water use

The heat pulse technique provides an estimate of sapflow velocity at one position within the xylem of an individual plant. Previous experience has shown that the velocity profile across the conducting area cannot be assumed to be constant, necessitating several such point estimates for a reasonable characterization of the velocity profile with depth. These point estimates must be integrated over the sapwood conducting area to derive flux. The most common method is to fit a one degree of freedom least-squares polynomial to the point estimates, and then to integrate this equation across the sapwood profile and around the bole. An alternative method is presented based on a weighted average approach. The latter is shown to be a more robust estimator of flux when velocity profiles exhibit large curvatures.     

Heartwood and sapwood variation in Eucalyptus globulus Labill. trees at the end of rotation for pulp wood production

The amount of heartwood and sapwood in Eucalyptus globulus Labill. wood was determined in commercial pulpwood plantations at harvest age (12 to 15 years) in four ites in central portugal. twelve trees were sampled in each site at nine stem height levels. Heartwood was present in all the trees up to 82%–87% of the total tree height and amounted to 38%–41% of the total tree volume. The heartwood proportion in the stem cross-section decreased from the base upwards, representing 53.3% and 26.1% of the total area respectively at the base and 55% height level. The sapwood width remained relatively constant along the stem at a mean 38 mm up to the 55% height level. The trees within the site, the height level and their interaction were highly significant sources of variation for heartwood proportion and sapwood width. The heartwood diameter and sapwood width were positively correlated with radial tree growth.     

Integration of sapflow velocity in elliptical stems

The estimation of water flux through the stem of a plant by point estimates based on the heat pulse technique requires integration of the velocity profile. The polynomial integration method and the weighted average technique both assume radial symmetry about the bole. A method is introduced that solves the equations for the ellipse in the weighted average technique, and includes an optimizing algorithm for the placement of sensors. The sensitivity of sapflow estimates through stems to increasing eccentricity is examined by means of analytical solutions and simulation. The error in sap flux measurement resulting from the radial approximation of the sapwood conducting area is expressed analytically and shown to be small over the range of eccentricities (e < 0.8) expected in nature. Simulations where radial symmetry is assumed for elliptical stems show substantial error in mean velocity (and thus flux) with modest eccentricities (e > 0.4).     

Faunal use of bluegum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) plantations in southwestern Australia

We examined the faunal use of Eucalyptus globulus plantations in southern Western Australia, and compared use of remnant vegetation, agricultural land and plantations in different positions relative to large tracts of remnant vegetation. In general, faunal use of plantations is less than in comparison with adjacent remnant vegetation, but more than in open pasture. For all faunal groups there were almost twice as many species recorded in the native vegetation than in any site in the plantations or on agricultural land and they were in greater abundance. Faunal use of plantation edges and interiors did not show consistent patterns. Generally, edges next to remnants were most frequently used, but individual species showed a wide range of patterns of use across the various habitat types studied. More species of bird identified as being “at risk” were found in plantation edges than in interiors. Adjacency to remnant vegetation increased plantation use by some species, but the overall differences between isolated plantations and those adjacent to remnant vegetation were relatively small. We conclude that plantations provide some value in terms of habitat for some species, including some of conservation concern, but that this value is limited by the lack of habitat complexity in the intensively-managed plantations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

蓝桉、直干桉木材纤维长度在株内的变异

对30株蓝桉、36株直干桉胸高圆盘上不同方向、年龄及树干不同高度的木材纤维长度所作的测定分析表明：两树种株内木材纤维在不同方向的差异不显著,年龄间、高度间的差异极其显著(P＜0001)。在11年生以前,纤维长度随年龄的增长几乎是直线上升,其变异可用对数曲线描述。纤维长度以胸高圆盘的平均值最短,其次为树高的3/4处,树干中部纤维较长。2年生与主伐时(8年)的纤维长度相关极显著(达0.01水平)。两树种间纤维长度差异均极其显著,区组间差异却不显著。蓝桉家系间差异显著(P＜0.05),直干桉家系间差异却不显著。     

蓝桉、直干桉木材密度在家系内和株内的变异

在蓝桉、直干桉子测林中各抽3个家系，从不同的区组按径阶等距抽样测定木材的密度，研究家系内木材密度的变异；在种子园中抽取蓝桉30株、直干桉36株作试材研究木材密度株内变异。结果表明蓝桉家系内不同径阶的木材密度差异不显著，直干桉极显著；蓝桉的木材密度在区组和家系间的差异都显著，而直干桉都不显著。株内不同方向的木材密度差异两树种均不显著，而不同高度和不同年龄的木材密度差异都极显著；在亲缘关系混杂的群体中两树种的树高和胸径与木材密度均呈负相关，而在3个蓝桉家系内，胸径与密度呈正相关，直干桉3个家系中两个呈正相关，1个呈负相关，但都不显著。为将这两个树种纸浆材的主伐年龄定为6年提供了充分的科学依据,且在2年生时对蓝桉、直干桉作早期选择可取得满意的效果，对直干桉尤为明显。     

蓝桉、直干桉子测林木材纤维长度的变异

在桉树种子园的后代测定林内，从蓝桉和直干桉中各抽3个家系，分别在立地条件不同的区组中按径阶等距抽样，每家系32株。经分析发现，纤维长度的变异为样品内>家系内>家系间。蓝桉纤维长度差异在径级和家系间均达到0．05水平，直干桉则不显著。区组间，两个树种的纤维长度差异都不显著。在立地条件好的区组中纤维长度与生长性状显著相关，立地条件差的区组却不密切。但以全部样本按树种分析，纤维长度与树高、胸径等生长性状都呈显著的正相关。     

Mycosphaerella species associated with leaf disease of Eucalyptus globulus in Ethiopia

Eucalyptus spp. are among the most widely planted exotic trees in Ethiopia. Several damaging leaf pathogens are known from Eucalyptus spp. worldwide. Of these, Mycosphaerella spp. are among the most important, causing the disease known as Mycosphaerella leaf disease (MLD). Characteristic symptoms of MLD include leaf spot, premature defoliation, shoot and twig dieback. Recent disease surveys conducted in Ethiopian Eucalyptus plantations have revealed disease symptoms similar to those caused by Mycosphaerella spp. These symptoms were restricted to E. globulus trees growing in several localities in south, south western and western Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to identify the fungi associated with this disease. This was achieved by examining ascospore germination patterns, anamorph associations and sequence data from the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA operon, for representative isolates. Several different ascospore germination patterns were observed, suggesting that more than one species of Mycosphaerella is responsible for MLD on E. globulus in Ethiopia. Analysis of sequence data showed that three Mycosphaerella spp., M. marksii, M. nubilosa and M. parva were present. This is the first report of these three species from Ethiopia and represents a valuable basis on which to build further studies in the region.     

蓝桉、直干桉综合丰产技术试验示范

试验林采用正交设计，因素为树种、整地方式、密度、施肥，各因素取３个水平，３次重复。用生长量、生物量与投入产出进行评价。试验结果：３．５年生蓝桉、直干桉幼林最佳处理平均高９．５ｍ，平均胸径８．９ｃｍ，每ｈｍ２蓄积量７０．５１２６ｍ３，最佳处理比最差处理树高大２８．４％，胸径大３４．９％，蓄积量大１８３％。用已取得的技术成果营造的示范林，３．５年生平均高９．８ｍ，平均胸径６．５ｃｍ，累计产桉叶２．４３万ｋｇ／ｈｍ２，３年生左右，通过桉油及薪柴的收入可以回收全部造林及加工成本。     

Mineral nutrition and adventitious rooting in microcuttings of Eucalyptus globulus

We characterized the adventitious rooting response of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. to various concentrations of calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, zinc, boron and copper. The parameters analyzed were percent rooting, root number, root length and mean rooting time. Root number and root length were significantly affected by mineral nutrition, whereas mean rooting time and rooting percentage seemed to be closely related to auxin availability. Root number was affected by calcium, nitrogen source and zinc, whereas root length was influenced by concentrations of phosphorus, iron and manganese, and by nitrogen source. Based on these results, we evaluated various combinations of several concentrations of these minerals in each rooting phase. Cuttings that were rooted in an optimized mineral nutrient medium and acclimatized to ex-vitro conditions for two months showed significantly higher survival after transplanting and drought stress than cuttings rooted in basal medium and treated in the same way.     

Studies on Dual Mycorrhizas of Eucalyptus globulus and E

This paper represents the first part of the results from a glasshouse experiment designed to compare the competition of ECM and VAM fungi on root colonization and effects on growth of two Eucalyptus species　（E．globulus and E．urophylla）．One ECM fungus（Laccaria lateritia）　and three VAM fungi belonging to genera Glomus，Acaulospora and Scutellospora，along with field soil as well，were used to inoculate Eucalyptus seedlings alone or in combination．Both ECM and VAM fungi colonized and formed mycorrhizal associations on roots of inoculated seedlings，though infective rates of VAM and ECM tips per meter varied according to inoculant fungi and plant ages． There were some regressive interactions for colonization between the two fungi，as a general trend for ECM root colonization levels to increase with time at the expense of VAM colonization was observed during 16 weeks． The effect of phosphorus levels in soils on mycorrhizal formation was discussed．     

Quambalaria eucalypti a pathogen of Eucalyptus globulus newly reported in Portugal and in Europe

The Eucalyptus pathogen Quambalaria eucalypti has been reported from several subtropical and tropical countries of the Southern Hemisphere. During the course of a nationwide monitoring programme aimed at the detection of pathogens in commercial eucalypt plantations in Portugal, Q. eucalypti was found affecting Eucalyptus globulus. The identity of the pathogen was confirmed by sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rDNA operon, as well as morphological characteristics. Quambalaria eucalypti is widespread throughout the eucalypt‐producing areas of Portugal. Pathogenicity studies revealed that different host genotypes showed various degrees of susceptibility to the pathogen. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Q. eucalypti on Eucalyptus spp. in Portugal and in the Northern Hemisphere.     

Leaf orientation,light interception and stomatal conductance of Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus leaves

Juvenile and adult leaves of the heteroblastic species Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ssp. globulus did not show active diurnal orientation toward or away from incident radiation. Juvenile leaves of a late-maturing sapling of a Tasmanian provenance were evenly distributed in all azimuth sectors. In contrast, an early-maturing sapling of the same age from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria had a predominance of adult leaf blades facing east and west. Mid-vein and blade angles of juvenile and adult leaves were non-random with an overall vertical declination of the leaves. Both leaf types intercepted a greater irradiance during the morning than at midday. Sub-horizontal juvenile leaves intercepted 22% more irradiance than vertical adult leaves during the middle of the day. The amphistomatal and isobilateral adult leaves intercepted sunlight equally on both leaf surfaces. Stomatal conductance was variable during the period of measurement but was similar for the Tasmanian juvenile (0.4 to 0.9 cm s(-1)) leaves and Wilsons Promontory adult (0.5 to 1.2 cm s(-1)) leaves. Greater light interception by the sub-horizontal juvenile leaves would confer a growth advantage to saplings and regenerating canopies. Reduced light interception and leaf temperature of vertical adult E. globulus leaves would assist in water conservation, particularly at high solar angles.     

Distinct effects of auxin and light on adventitious root development in Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus globulus

Adventitious rooting is essential for vegetative propagation of woody species. We studied the effects of auxin and light on the development of adventitious roots in cuttings obtained from seedlings of Eucalyptus saligna Smith and E. globulus Labill in an attempt to characterize the adventitious rooting process and identify factors controlling rhizogenesis. Root development was scored as rooting percentage, root density (roots per rooted cutting), mean rooting time and root length. In both species, rooting time was reduced in the presence of auxin. Cuttings from 2-month-old E. saligna seedlings were responsive to lower auxin concentrations than comparable cuttings from E. globulus seedlings. Cuttings from 3-month-old E. saligna seedlings rooted promptly and rooting was not significantly affected by light conditions. In contrast, rooting of cuttings from 3-month-old E. globulus seedlings exhibited recalcitrant behavior and no roots were formed if illuminated during the root formation phase. Effective root regeneration of E. globulus cuttings was obtained by a 4-day exposure to 10 mg l(-1) IBA and culture in darkness during the root formation step. Loss of rooting capacity with seedling age was more pronounced in E. globulus than in E. saligna. The possibility of switching adventitious rooting off and on by manipulating light regime and exogenous auxin supply in E. globulus, and the constitutive nature of rooting in E. saligna may provide useful models for examining the rooting process at the biochemical and molecular levels in Eucalyptus.     

Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations of Tasmania,Australia

The genus Mycosphaerella Johanson contains many pathogens capable of causing a severe impact on the growth of susceptible eucalypt species. The lack of knowledge about which species are present in Tasmania and their potential risk to the plantation industry prompted this study into the Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations in Tasmania. A total of 36 plantation and five road verge sites of E. globulus and E. nitens were sampled. Five Mycosphaerella species and three species from associated anamorph genera were isolated and identified in Tasmania; Mycosphaerella nubilosa, Mycosphaerella cryptica, Mycosphaerella tasmaniensis, Mycosphaerella grandis, Mycosphaerella vespa, Coniothyrium ovatum, Sonderhenia eucalypticola and Sonderhenia eucalyptorum. The most frequently isolated species with the highest incidence and severity of infection were M. cryptica and M. nubilosa. These two species appear to have the greatest potential to damage juvenile eucalypt plantations in Tasmania. A link between Mycosphaerella vespa and Coniothyrium ovatum is described for the first time.     

Physiology and anatomy of lenticel-like structures on leaves of Eucalyptus nitens and Eucalyptus globulus seedlings

Intumescences or abnormal, non-pathogenic, blister-like protuberant growths, form on Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and, to a much lesser extent, Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maiden leaves when plants are grown in a high relative humidity environment. We examined the histology of intumescences and their effects on leaf photosynthetic processes. Intumescences were induced by placing E. globulus and E. nitens seedlings in a relative humidity of 80% in a greenhouse for 5 days. Symptomatic and asymptomatic leaves of plants with intumescence development were compared with leaves of control plants. Light-saturated carbon dioxide (CO(2)) assimilation (A(max)) and responses of CO(2) assimilation (A) to varying intercellular CO(2) partial pressure (C(i)) were measured. Symptomatic and asymptomatic leaf samples were fixed and sectioned and cellular structure was examined. Intumescences greatly reduced the photosynthetic capacity of E. globulus leaves and were associated with reduced electron transport rate and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration capacity. Tissue necrotization and cellular collapse of the palisade mesophyll and deposition of phenolic compounds in the affected areas, probably reduced light penetration to photosynthesizing cells as well as reducing the amount of photosynthesizing tissue. Photosynthetic capacity of E. nitens was unaffected. The intumescences resembled simple lenticels, both morphologically and developmentally. To our knowledge, this is the first time that lenticel-like structures developed in response to environmental conditions have been described on leaves.     

Origins and diversity of the Portuguese Landrace of Eucalyptus globulus

The Portuguese Landrace of Eucalyptus globulus is of unknown origin, with the earliest plantings of this tree species dating back to the early 19th century. In Portugal it is currently a major seed source for plantations and is also used in breeding programs. Eucalyptus globulus is native to south-eastern Australia. The substantial genetic differentiation of chloroplast and nuclear DNA markers between different native geographic races of this species allowed us to uncover the Australian origins of the Portuguese Landrace and to study its genetic diversity. To achieve this, we sequenced a highly polymorphic region of chloroplast DNA from 47 Portuguese Landrace individuals, and genotyped 34 of these using seven nuclear microsatellites. We compared these individuals to those in a database comprising chloroplast DNA sequence profiles from 292 native trees and seven nuclear microsatellites from 372 native trees. The majority of the Portuguese Landrace samples had closest affinities, in both marker systems, to native trees from south-eastern Tasmania, but some had affinities to trees from south-eastern Victoria. The discrepancies in the affinities indicated by chloroplast versus nuclear DNA markers could be explained by inter-race hybridisation after introduction. The genetic diversity in the Portuguese Landrace was less than that found in native E. globulus at the species level, but was similar to the average diversity found in native races of the species. This study demonstrates the power of using independent marker systems to identify the origins and diversity of domesticated populations, by comparison with variation in native stands.     

Advances in reproductive biology and seed production systems of Eucalyptus: the case of Eucalyptus globulus

Eucalyptus globulus is the main eucalypt species grown in Australian plantations. The focus on seedling deployment systems, coupled with exploitation of large, open-pollinated base populations for breeding purposes over the last two decades, has required a detailed understanding of the reproductive biology of this species. We review our research on the reproductive biology of E. globulus, with a focus on its breeding system and advances made in seed production systems. While most improved seed is still obtained from open-pollinated seedling or grafted seed orchards, the development of the one-stop/single-visit pollination procedure has revolutionised the breeding and deployment of this species. The reduced costs of controlled pollination has meant full pedigree-control can now be maintained in large advanced-generation breeding populations and E. globulus is one of the few eucalypt species where large-scale production of manually pollinated seed for family forestry is being undertaken.