Sero-epidemiology of canine leptospirosis in Trinidad: serovars, implications for vaccination and public health

A sero-epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non-vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; chi2). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; chi2). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi2). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over-emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease.     

Leptospiral antibodies in the breeding goat population of Poland

In 2007, a survey was conducted on the prevalence of antibodies to 19 Leptospira serovars in goats in Poland . Sera were collected from adult females of all 49 breeding goat herds in Poland by applying simple random sampling. In total, 736 sera were tested by the microscopic agglutination test. A herd was considered seropositive if at least one goat with a titre of 100 or more was detected. Herd-level seroprevalence of Leptospira was 89.8 per cent and individual-level seroprevalence varied from less than 1.0 to 85.0 per cent among the herds. Antibodies to Leptospira serovars Zanoni, Bratislava, Autumnalis, Australis and Javanica were most frequently detected. Although 40.3 per cent of seropositive goats had high antibody titres (≥ 400), suggesting recent infection, no relationship with abortions or other clinical manifestation of leptospirosis in goats was detected.     

Sero‐epidemiology of Canine Leptospirosis in Trinidad: Serovars,Implications for Vaccination and Public Health

A sero‐epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non‐vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; χ²). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; χ²). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over‐emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease.     

Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, and leishmaniosis among dogs in Ankara, Turkey

Seroprevalence of five different Leptospira interrogans serovars, Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania infantum in stray dogs in Ankara was investigated. A total of 116 dog sera collected from apparently healthy stray dogs were tested for L. interrogans serovars by microscopic agglutination test (MAT), for T. gondii antibodies by Sabin-Feldman dye test (SFDT), and for L. infantum antibodies by indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT). Of the 116 dogs, 51 (43.96%) were seropositive for leptospirosis, 72 (62.06%) for T. gondii and 3 (2.58%) for L. infantum. No statistically significant difference was observed between male and female dogs in the seroprevalences of toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis (P>0.05), but statistically significant difference was observed among different age groups in the seroprevalences of toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis (P<0.05). Although the seroprevalence of L. infantum was low, asymptomatic animals should be considered as a reservoir for the spread of the disease.     

Cross-sectional study of canine leptospirosis in animal shelter populations in mainland Australia

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of canine leptospirosis in Queensland and to detect infection, if present, in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory by measuring the serological titres of dogs held in animal shelters. PROCEDURE: Samples were collected through stratified sampling from multiple dog shelters in Queensland and New South Wales, and from one dog shelter located in close proximity to a major urban area in Victoria, South Australia, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. All samples were analysed using the microscopic agglutination test at the WHO/FAO/OIE Collaborating Centre for Reference & Research on Leptospirosis, Queensland Health Scientific Services in Brisbane, Queensland. RESULTS: Of a total of 956 samples submitted, 18 (1.9%) had positive leptospirosis titres. True prevalence measured in Queensland was estimated to be 2.5%, and the true prevalence in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory was estimated to be 2.3%, 2.8%, 0%, 1% and 1.1% respectively. An association was found between seropositive status and female dogs (odds ratio (OR) 1.92) and seropositive status and the age group 1 to < 3 years (OR 1.41). Although 11 different serovars were detected, Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni was the most prevalent and was found in 4 of the 18 positive dogs as a single infection. CONCLUSION: Serological evidence of canine leptospirosis in five states in mainland Australia indicates that the disease is more broadly distributed than previously thought.     

Naturally acquired leptospirosis in 36 dogs: serological and clinicopathological features

Case records of 36 dogs with confirmed leptospirosis diagnosed at the New York State College of Veterinary Medicine from 1980 to 1995 were reviewed retrospectively, and clinical, serological and pathological findings were recorded to characterise the epidemiology of this disease in upstate New York. Titres were directed predominantly against serovars grlppotyphosa and/or pomona in 31 of 34 dogs. Convalescent titres were measured for 53 per cent of dogs. The most common clinical presentation was acute renal failure. Increased liver enzyme activity was documented in 22 of 36 dogs. It is clear from this study that Leptospira pomona and grippotyphosa are important pathogens capable of causing severe renal and hepatic injury in dogs.     

Prevalence of serum antibodies against six Leptospira serovars in healthy dogs

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of antibodies against 6 Leptospira serovars and determine risk factors associated with positive Leptospira titers in healthy client-owned dogs in Michigan. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. ANIMALS: 1,241 healthy dogs at least 4 months of age. PROCEDURES: Dogs were examined by veterinarians at private practices. Vaccinated and unvaccinated dogs were enrolled in the study, which occurred prior to the availability of a 4-serovar (Canicola, Grippotyphosa, Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Pomona) Leptospira vaccine. Sera were tested by use of the microscopic agglutination test to determine antibody titers against Leptospira serovars Bratislava, Canicola, Grippotyphosa, Hardjo, Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Pomona. A questionnaire was used to collect demographic information about each dog to identify risk factors associated with seropositive status. RESULTS: 309 of 1,241 (24.9%) dogs had antibody titers against at least 1 of the 6 Leptospira serovars, which suggested exposure to Leptospira spp. Prevalence of antibodies was highest to serovar Grippotyphosa, followed by Bratislava, Canicola, Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Pomona. Age, travel outside Michigan, exercise outside fenced yards, and exposure to livestock and wildlife were significant risk factors for positive titers. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Among healthy dogs from the lower peninsula of Michigan, > 20% have antibodies against leptospiral serovars historically considered uncommon but more recently incriminated as causing clinical canine leptospirosis. Wildlife and livestock may be of increasing importance as reservoirs for canine leptospirosis as urbanization continues to occur. Expanded vaccination strategies may partially mitigate these trends.     

Prevalence of Campylobacter and four endoparasites in dog populations associated with Hearing Dogs

OBJECTIVES: This study established the prevalence of four gastrointestinal parasites (Isopora species, Giardia species, Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxocara canis) and one bacterial infection (Campylobacter jejuni/coli) in dogs associated with the charity Hearing Dogs for Deaf People. METHODS: Dogs' faeces were routinely sampled from dogs according to whether they were in Socialising, Kennelling or Visiting the Hearing Dogs site. A further group consisted of dogs with diarrhoea. RESULTS: Prevalence rates for dogs in Socialising (n=326), Kennelling (n=117), Visiting (n=106) and Diarrhoea (n=59) groups, respectively, were as follows: Campylobacter- 26, 21, 15 and 31 per cent; Coccidia - 3, 0, 0 and 2 per cent; Giardia- 13, 3, 2 and 10 per cent; hookworm - 1, 1, 4 and 5 per cent; and Toxocara- 4, 2, 3 and 2 per cent. There were significant differences in the levels of Giardia and hookworm found between the four different groups of dogs. No significant gender differences were found, and dogs that were positive for Campylobacter in the Visiting group were significantly younger. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides current information on the infection rates in specific dog populations in the UK. This is relevant to the veterinary health of dogs and the possible risk of zoonotic infection to humans.     

Resurgence of leptospirosis in dogs in Ontario: recent findings

A marked increase in leptospirosis in dogs was observed in 2000, part of an increasing trend observed in previous years in Ontario. The highest frequency of seropositive cases occurred from September to December 2000, with the peak in November. Large breed dogs were particularly affected. Clinical and clinicopathological data for 31 dogs admitted between 1998 and 2000 to the Ontario Veterinary College Veterinary Teaching Hospital were analyzed. Major clinical presenting features were acute onset of anorexia, depression, fever, and vomiting. Ninety percent of dogs, on admission, showed biochemical evidence of injury to several organs, notably combinations in the order of kidney, muscle, pancreas, and liver. Almost all dogs showed increased serum urea and creatinine levels, and the majority had increased total creatine kinase, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, and leukocytosis with neutrophilia. One-third were thrombocytopenic. Of dogs with liver-related abnormalities, most had evidence of cholestasis, with or without hepatocellular damage. Based on serologic studies, in the year 2000, the major serovar involved was autumnalis, but bratislava, grippotyphosa, and pomona were also implicated. The microscopic agglutination test often gave a confusing pattern of reactivities to the serovars that were tested. The high reactivity to serovar autumnalis may represent an erroneous or "paradoxical" reaction typical of early leptospiral serology. The year 2000 was the warmest in Ontario in each of the 4 fall months (September-December) of the previous decade, as well as being the third wettest in the fall period in the last decade. The increase in canine leptospirosis, therefore, may, in part, reflect climate change. The number of positive cases declined in 2001 by about one-third of those in 2000, but the number of submissions of sera for diagnosis increased markedly over previous years. Further work is required to isolate and to identify definitively serovars involved in resurgent canine leptospirosis and the common sources for dogs.     

Collie eye anomaly in the rough collie in Norway

The results of eye examinations of 741 rough collies for collie eye anomaly (CEA) are described. Of the examined dogs, 40-8 per cent had CEA, including, in most cases, chorioretinal dysplasia (CRD). 7-7 per cent had coloboma of the optic disc while 3–5 per cent had complications of CEA, either retinal detachment or intraocular bleeding. There was no sex difference nor was the frequency of the disease influenced by coat colour. After estimating the total frequencies of the different manifestations of the disease, the dogs were divided into two groups according to the age at first examination. In the group of dogs examined between seven weeks and three months old, 48-9 per cent had CEA, compared to a frequency of 25-6 per cent in the group of dogs examined after three months of age. All the puppies with coloboma also showed signs of CRD, while among the older dogs 11 of the 66 CEA cases reported showed signs of coloboma without CRD. Twenty-two dogs which had been examined as puppies and given the diagnosis CEA with minor chorioretinal changes were re-examined at an older age. Of these dogs, 15 had ophthalmoscopi-cally normal fundi at re-examination while seven were unchanged from the first examination.     

Assay of fipronil efficacy to prevent canine monocytic ehrlichiosis in endemic areas

Our objective was to evaluate the efficacy of fipronil for the prevention of Ehrlichia canis transmission to dogs by Rhipicephalus sanguineus in two endemic areas situated in Africa (Dakar and Djibouti). We carried out controlled trials in kennels for 1 year on 248 dogs, mainly police dogs and military working dogs. Eight groups were studied in a multi-centre study. Fifty five fipronil treated dogs were located in two separated kennels (G3, 37 dogs in Djibouti and G8, 18 dogs in Dakar). G1 (66 dogs) and G2 (60 dogs) were untreated control groups located in Djibouti, whereas G4 (32 dogs), G5 (13 dogs), G6 (18 dogs) and G7 (4 dogs) were the control groups located in Dakar. The epidemiological status of each group is known. G1 and G2 dogs were not kept in kennels, whereas G3, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8 dogs were housed in equivalent kennels. Tick infestation, clinical status and Ehrlichia seroprevalence were assessed during 1 year (duration of the study). Dog treated with fipronil showed neither canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (CME) nor tick infestations. In all groups of untreated control animals, R. sanguineus tick infestations were frequent, particularly in kennels (G5, G6 and G7) as well as morbidity and mortality due to CME. E. canis infection rates were low for fipronil treated animals: 2.7% (1/37) for G3 and 5.5% (1/18) for G8 group. Among control animals, seroprevalence was maximum (100%) in dogs kept in kennels (G5, G6 and G7 groups) and high among native dogs in Djibouti (G1 group): 69.7% (46/66) and in Dakar (G4 group): 50% (16/32). Dogs belonging to expatriate citizens (G2 group) were less likely to be infected: 21.7% (13/60). The comparison of serological results among French army dogs and French citizen dogs that were introduced in Djibouti for an average of 10 months shows a statistically significant (P<0.001) difference. Among fipronil treated animals (G3 group), 2 dogs out of 55 seroconverted (3.6%) compared to 13 out of 60 dogs (21.7%) in the control G2 group. The results of our study indicate the preventative efficacy of a fipronil monthly treatment to avoid CME in endemic areas. Epidemiological data concerning animals that live in the same endemic areas are an example of the serious consequences (in terms of mortality and morbidity) that are related to the absence of efficient methods for tick-control. In order to protect dogs that are in transit in endemic areas against tick-transmitted diseases, the use of an adapted acaricide product is recommended.     

Serological findings in cases of acute leptospirosis in the dog

Fourteen dogs which had died from acute leptospirosis, three dogs which survived an acute attack of leptospirosis and seven healthy dogs living in close contact with the animals which died were examined for the presence of lepto-spiral antibodies by the microscopic agglutination test. Twelve dogs had titres of 1:3200 or greater. The predominant titre was directed against serovar bratislava in seven cases, serovar grippothyphosa in two cases and both these serovars in two cases. In one case the predominant titre was directed against serovars bratislava, grippothyphosa, copenhageni (serogroup icterohaemorrhagiae) and pomona. The present study and other recent reports suggest that the epidemiology of canine leptospirosis is changing with the emergence of serovars differing from those typically infecting dogs, namely canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae.     

Leptospira interrogans serovar bratislava infection in two dogs

Two dogs with clinical histories suggestive of leptospirosis were examined serologically and culturally for evidence of leptospiral infection. Antibodies to Leptospira interrogans serovar bratislava were detected in serum from one dog, and the organism was isolated from urine of that dog. In a serologic survey of dogs in the state of Illinois, reactor rates to bratislava were higher than those to canicola or icterohaemorrhagiae. In cases of suspect canine leptospirosis, serovars such as bratislava, not contained in canine vaccines, should be considered in a differential diagnosis.     

Clinical application of a polymerase chain reaction assay for diagnosis of leptospirosis in dogs

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay on urine samples for diagnosis of leptospirosis in dogs. DESIGN: Prospective case study. ANIMALS: 132 dogs with clinical signs suggestive of leptospirosis and 13 healthy dogs. PROCEDURE: PCR testing was performed on urine samples to detect leptospiral DNA; results were compared with results of conventional criteria for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. RESULTS: Leptospirosis was diagnosed in 8 dogs via established criteria; all these dogs had positive results of PCR assay, including 1 dog with positive results before seroconversion developed. A positive PCR assay result was also obtained in 16 dogs that did not have a confirmed diagnosis of leptospirosis. In the 8 dogs that had a confirmed diagnosis of leptospirosis, serovars pomona (n = 3 dogs), grippotyphosa (2), canicola (2), and bratislava (1) were identified serologically. The remaining 121 dogs all had a diagnosis other than leptospirosis or were healthy. For PCR testing on urine, sensitivity was 100%, specificity was 88.3%, positive predictive value was 33%, and negative predictive value was 100%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Positive PCR test results prior to seroconversion may have value in establishing an early diagnosis. Positive results in dogs that had signs consistent with leptospirosis despite failing to meet established criteria for leptospirosis raise questions regarding the sensitivity of serologic testing in diagnosis of leptospirosis. Serovars pomona, grippotyphosa, and canicola were most common.     

Prevalence of antibodies against Babesia canis in dogs in an endemic area

A survey of 287 dogs for antibodies against Babesia canis in dogs in an endemic area, using ELISA, produced a prevalence of 43 per cent. Antibodies occurred in dogs of all age groups, the prevalence being significantly lower in dogs aged 1 to 6 months than in older dogs. There were no differences between indigenous Nigerian dogs and exotic (foreign) dogs; and between the sexes in the prevalence of antibodies. Antibodies were more prevalent in dogs with B. canis parasitaemia and in those with a higher risk of infection. Also antibodies were detected in some puppies born to seropositive bitches. The ELISA test failed to detect antibodies in 36.1 per cent of dogs with B. canis parasitaemia.     

Prevalence of leptospira species among farmed and domestic animals in Greece

A total of 1527 serum samples from pigs, goats, sheep, cattle and dogs in Greece were examined by the microscopic agglutination test and 11-8 per cent of them had antibodies against one or more Leptospira serovars at titres of 1/100 or more. The predominant serovar affecting farm animal species was Bratislava, and Copenhageni was common among dogs and the second most important serovar when all animals were considered together. Another prevalent serovar was Australis, but antibodies to Pomona were detected only in goats and cattle.     

A serosurvey for antibodies to Leptospira in dogs in the lower North Island of New Zealand

AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of antibodies to endemic and exotic Leptospira serovars in samples from a serum bank, collected from dogs in the lower North Island of New Zealand. METHODS: Sera (n=466), which had been collected from apparently healthy dogs, were screened using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) for antibodies to serovars L. borgpeterseni serovar hardjo, L. interrogans serovars pomona, copenhageni and canicola, and L. kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa. RESULTS: Antibody to Leptospiral antigen was found in 14.2% of dogs tested. The highest level of reactivity was with serovar copenhageni, to which 9.5% (41/433) of sera were positive. Antibodies to serovars grippotyphosa and canicola were not detected in this population of dogs. CONCLUSIONS: Leptospira infection is relatively common in dogs in the lower North Island . CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Vaccination of dogs against leptospirosis should be considered using vaccine containing antigen to serovars hardjo, pomona and copenhageni. The presence of moderate levels of copenhageni antibody in dogs in the lower North Island raises the possibility that this serovar has become established in rodent populations in this region.     

Serovar-specific prevalence and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs: 90 cases (1997-2002)

OBJECTIVE: To estimate serovar-specific prevalence of leptospirosis by use of veterinary teaching hospital and laboratory submission data; describe annual and seasonal patterns of leptospirosis; and identify risk factors for age, sex, and breed. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 90 dogs with leptospirosis. PROCEDURES: Hospital records of dogs examined at Purdue University Veterinary Teaching Hospital with a diagnosis of leptospirosis and laboratory records of dogs from which sera were tested for antibodies against Leptospira spp at Purdue University Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory from 1997 through 2002 were reviewed. The likely infecting Leptospira serovar was identified. Seasonal and annual prevalences were calculated by use of hospital population at risk (hospital cases) or serologic testing submissions (diagnostic laboratory cases). Age-, sex-, and breed-specific risk factors for hospital cases were estimated by odds ratios. RESULTS: Of the 39 hospitalized dogs identified, 34 had been serologically tested, and 22 of those were infected with Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa. Of the 51 diagnostic laboratory cases, 59% had a reciprocal titer > or = 800 against serovar grippotyphosa. Diagnostic laboratory cases were more common in summer, whereas hospital cases of leptospirosis were more common in fall. Male dogs were at significantly greater risk of leptospirosis than female dogs; and dogs 4 to 6.9 years old were at significantly greater risk than dogs < 1 year old. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: L kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa infection was associated with most cases of leptospirosis in dogs. Use of an effective vaccine that includes this serovar is advisable for dogs at risk of leptospirosis.     

Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis in livestock in Trinidad

A study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of leptospirosis and infecting serovars across livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs) in Trinidad using the microscopic agglutination test with an international panel of 23 serovars. Of a total of 590 cattle tested, 21.5% were seropositive with agglutinations to 13 of the 23 antigens used in the panel. Icterohaemorrhagiae (9.3%), Sejroe (4.1%), Ballum (4.1%), and Autumnalis (1.9%) were the predominant serogroups detected in the cattle sampled (n = 590). Of 222 sheep tested, 5.0% were seropositive with agglutinations to five serovars belonging to two serogroups. These serogroups were Autumnalis at 2.7%, and Icterohaemorrhagiae at 2.3% of all sheep tested (n = 222). Of a total of 180 goats tested, 3.3% were seropositive, all agglutinating to the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup, 1.7% to serovar Copenhageni, 1.1% to serovar Mankarso, and 0.6% to serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae. Among pigs (n = 200), 5.0% were seropositive for five serovars belonging to three serogroups. These serogroups were Icterohaemorrhagiae at 2.5%, Australis at 2%, and Ballum at 0.5%. Overall, age and sex of animals were not significantly associated with leptospirosis with the exception of cattle where age was a significant factor for seropositivity. It was concluded that for livestock, leptospirosis may be an important zoonotic and economic disease, particularly in the case of cattle. It is imperative that the impact of leptospirosis on abortion, stillbirths, and decreased milk production in livestock in the country be assessed.