Evaluating geographic and social inequity of urban parks in Shanghai through mobile phone-derived human activities

The equity of urban park access has received great attention from studies on public service provision. However, individuals’ growing demands for recreational activities have brought diversity and complexity to park usages, drawing doubts on traditional measurements of park accessibility. To fill the gap, this study explores park equity issues with a dataset containing 12.03 million mobile phone users who accessed one of the 332 parks in Shanghai. We measured community-level park accessibility with two traditional place-based indicators – park area proportion and Gaussian-based 2SFCA accessibility, and three innovative activity-based indicators – park activity frequency, park activity trip length, and park activity duration. We then explored the geographic and social inequity by calculating Gini index and conducting correlation analysis. The results show that place-based and activity-based indicators presented citywide differences, indicating a significant impact of human activities on urban park accessibility. The geographic inequality of park distribution was undermined by people’s actual park usages. However, residents in communities with higher quality of built-environment had higher park activity frequency while shorter trip length, and social inequity of park access among the total population was more obvious than the low-recreation-demand population. Therefore, policy-makers should rethink how to provide park resources to address the inequity issues brought by human activities. Our study contributes to the existing literature in the following ways: (1) compared place-based park accessibility and activity-based park accessibility in the same context, and (2) identified low-recreation-demand population as a comparison group to explore impacts of recreation demand on park equity.     

Investigating the spatial distribution of urban parks from the perspective of equity-efficiency: Evidence from Chengdu,China

Urban parks play a crucial role in urban public green infrastructure, providing recreational places for urban residents while carrying values of aesthetics, ecology, humanities, economy, life, and society. However, achieving an equitable and efficient spatial layout of urban parks is a challenging task due to limited urban space resources, which requires further exploration. This study employed multisource big data and GIS technology to constructed an indicator system for evaluating the equity-efficiency of urban park spatial distribution. We examined the spatial distribution of 85 parks across 62 sub-districts in the main urban area of Chengdu, the largest city in western China and the first Park City of China. The results demonstrated that equity was polarized, with an indicator value ranging from 0 to 0.77 and an average value of 0.32. The sub-district of Sansheng had the highest equity, while Wenjia and Kanghe had the lowest equity. Twenty-one sub-districts had no parks, and the equity of park spatial distribution in these areas was low. The efficiency indicator ranged from 0.20 to 0.62, with an average value of 0.40. The efficiency of the main urban area was high in the southwest and low in the northeast. The sub-district of Huangtianba had the highest efficiency, while Jinguanyi had the lowest efficiency. In the two-dimensional quadrant of equity-efficiency, 24 sub-districts had high equity and high efficiency, 13 sub-districts had high equity and low efficiency, 4 sub-districts had low equity and high efficiency, and 21 sub-districts had low equity and low efficiency. At the district level, only Chenghua District’s park was spatial equitable and efficient, surpassing the average level of the main urban area. Finally, we discussed the findings in the context of planning policies for Chengdu in recent years. We proposed that strengthening the construction of small urban parks and green spaces, improving park facilities to meet the diverse social needs of people, and enhancing the quality and attractiveness of the parks are crucial for the future development of park green spaces in the main urban areas of Chengdu.     

How does enclosed private residential green space impact accessibility equity in urban regions? A case study in Shenzhen,China

Compared with public parks, residential quarter green space (RQGS) is a type of enclosed private green space that is located in residential areas and has higher visit frequency. Generally, in China residential areas with high housing prices have higher quality and more quantity of RQGS. Therefore, the differences in RQGS between residents with different socio-economic status may influence the equity of urban green space accessibility. However, due to the lack of data sources, few existing studies have taken RQGS into account as a part of urban green space supply resources. Based on multi-source geographic big data, this paper takes Shenzhen as the research area to explore the impact of RQGS on the spatial pattern and fair distribution of green space accessibility. The total green space accessibility (TGSA), which includes the accessibility of RQGS, and the public park accessibility (PPA) were calculated using the Gaussian-based two-step floating catchment area method (2SFCA). Using housing prices to indicate the income level of dwellers, bivariate Moran’s I and multiple regression were adopted to explore equity of urban green space accessibility. The main conclusions were: (1) The accessibility of green space increased by 27.97% on average after considering RQGS and ignoring RQGS could underestimate the accessibility of green space, particularly in the residential quarter with high housing prices near the city center. (2) The regression coefficients of housing prices with PPA and TGSA were 0.042 (p < 0.01) and 0.160 (p < 0.001), respectively, indicating that the advantages of high-income groups in RQGS may further exacerbate the inequity of urban green space accessibility. The research conclusions may provide a scientific basis for optimizing the spatial structure of green space in urban areas and ensuring the equitable distribution of green space.     

Social disparities in tree canopy and park accessibility: A case study of six cities in Illinois using GIS and remote sensing

Easy access to green space and the presence of lush tree canopy in neighborhoods provide substantial psychophysical benefits to residents. However, these urban amenities are often unevenly distributed between white and racial/ethnic minority residents. In this study, we investigated racial/ethnic disparities in access to parks and tree canopy using a geographic information system (GIS) and remote-sensing techniques in six Illinois cities. An accessibility index based on a new Google Maps application programming interface (API) was used to calculate walking distances between points of origins and parks, and integrated classification techniques were applied to calculate the amount of tree canopy. Kernel-smoothing function was applied to both canopy and park layers to transform point value to continuous surface value. Both ordinary regression and spatial regression were used to find the relationship.The results of this study show that racial/ethnic minorities have less tree canopy in their neighborhoods, but it did not find significant differences in terms of access to parks. Spatial regression was determined to be an effective modeling approach for the data used in this study. Methods used in this study can be extended to study accessibility to various destinations using different means of transit, and the results can guide intervention programs to help reduce environmental inequity.     

Accessibility to urban parks: Comparing GIS based measures in the city of Padova (Italy)

Accessibility to urban green spaces is essential for urban dwellers’ health and well-being. For planning purposes different accessibility measures and indicators have been used. Some are only based on availability, others consider distance from residences, yet others rely on gravity-based methods that consider both supply and demand. Different indicators often provide diverse and sometimes contradictory results and many issues remain in developing a comprehensive measure of accessibility, and representativity problems remain in matching indices with reality. In this study different accessibility measures have been developed and applied to the urban parks of the city of Padova, in northeastern Italy. Effectiveness and reliability of ten indicators derived from these measures, in identifying needs, inadequacies and disparities in park access have been tested at the urban unit scale. The study confirmed that multiple indicators need to be used to provide a useful planning tool for the provision of adequate and equal opportunities for open space access to the citizens. The study has also shown which indicators can be replaced by each other without losing important information.     

Optimizing urban green space patterns to improve spatial equity using location-allocation model: A case study in Wuhan

Green space allocation aims to support the UNs sustainable development goals (SDGs) and to mitigate the conflicts between supply and demand. Previous studies have shown that the uneven distribution of populations and natural locations of green space results in environmental inequity. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on strategies for reducing mismatches of supply and demand by optimizing spatial patterns in highly dense cities. Developed urbanized areas are featured in fewer spaces for greening. In this study, we set three scenarios for coordinating the provision and demand of urban green spaces at a block scale. Taking the main city of Wuhan as an example, we apply the location-allocation model in order to identify potential sites for new green spaces. Then, the simulations of the three scenarios are used to depict various development strategies by evaluating the improvement of green equity. Our results show that the levels of green space accessibility are lower on the west side of the city center, while relatively higher on the east side, due to abundant natural resources. The Gini coefficient is 0.715, indicating unequal access for citizens to green space. Increasing green areas could enhance green equity, and the most effective way to allocate new increments is based on the accessibility. For developed cities, blocks with lower accessibility should be given priority when increasing green areas; doing so could offset the shortage of large green areas and reduce green inequity within daily walking distances. Optimal green space planning of small and functional parks near communities has the potential to meet higher recreational demands in densely populated areas.     

Evaluating the accessibility of urban parks and waterfronts through online map services: A case study of Shaoxing,China

Regular access to natural environment has many physical and mental health benefits for urban residents. This study was to evaluate the accessibility of urban parks and waterfronts in a Chinese canal city at the household level. Shaoxing, a typical canal town in the Yangtze River Delta region of China, was selected as the case study because of its abundant but underused natural resources. The study had measured the shortest travel routes from individual households to parks and waterfronts using data from the online map service and intensive fieldwork. The results showed that only 22% of Shaoxing residents live within a 500 m walking distance to parks, but scenario analysis showed if the canals were well used, almost all the residents would have access to natural environment within 15 min’ walk. Thus, the route-based accessibility evaluation method developed in this research offers a fine-grained understanding of household inequality in access to natural environments. It not only provides specific recommendations for planning intervention to improve the accessibility of natural resources in Shaoxing, but also contributes to the advancement of accessibility measures for planning practice. This route-based measure makes it possible to combine other accessibility measures of the travel routes such as sidewalk qualities in future research. The simplicity of this method means that it can be used to evaluate accessibility to other public facilities at the household level to develop walkable neighborhoods in cities.     

Perceptions of parks and urban derelict land by landscape planners and residents

As urban green spaces are important for residential satisfaction, human preferences are a key criterion in their design. However, preferences may vary between landscape planners and residents, which may result in differences between residents’ demands and the actual design. With urban derelict land becoming an important part of the urban green infrastructure, information about the perception and acceptance by residents compared to formal urban parks is important for their planning and design. It was thus examined how different types of urban green spaces are perceived by landscape planners and residents. Criteria for the classification of green spaces used by both participant groups were compared, as were the criteria that influenced preference.Participants sorted and rated photographs of parks and urban derelict land in two different tasks. Hierarchical cluster analyses and multidimensional scaling analyses were used to characterize the participants’ perceptual space. By conducting multiple regression analyses the resulting perceptual dimensions were related to preference.The identified perceptual criteria used to distinguish green spaces were degree of canopy closure, artificiality vs. naturalness, prospect, physical accessibility, and beauty. For residents, the degree of canopy closure was the most important criterion for classification; for landscape planners, it was artificiality. Preferences varied between groups: whereas landscape planners preferred rather natural areas with low accessibility and high species richness, the residents showed a greater preference for formal parks.As a practical implication, the study suggests that residents generally accept urban derelict land as recreational areas if a minimum of maintenance and accessibility is provided. When designing green spaces, landscape planners may consider these differences in their preferences compared to residents.     

Exploring the use and perceptions of inner-city small urban parks: A case study of Budapest,Hungary

Globally, accelerating urbanization has led to a severe shortage of urban green spaces. This scarcity is particularly acute in inner cities with high population densities and ratios of built-up areas. To explore park visitors’ usage and perceptions, we present the results of a survey of 681 individuals from different socioeconomic groups conducted in four small urban parks in Budapest, Hungary’s capital. The survey results found that people living near the block parks were their primary users, but many people from distant areas also visited the parks due to their good accessibility. In addition, findings show that the green components of the parks were generally more satisfactory to users than other amenities, indicating higher quality expectations for cultural ecosystem services in small urban green spaces. However, perceptions of park safety varied across socioeconomic groups, suggesting that views of safety did not necessarily reflect actual park security. Finally, while most respondents stated they would not want to contribute to park maintenance, young people, particularly neighborhood newcomers, showed greater willingness to volunteer for such work.     

Protest response and contingent valuation of an urban forest park in Fuzhou City,China

Urban forest parks, such as Fuzhou National Forest Park (FNFP), provide residents with landscape amenities, recreational opportunities, and interaction with nature. Understanding the recreational quality of green spaces and visitors’ behaviors and preferences is essential for effective forest park conservation strategy. We aimed to assess the recreational use and amenities of FNFP and calculate the monetary value of provided services using a contingent valuation method (CVM). A total of 249 park visitors were interviewed face-to-face based on a questionnaire using entrance fee as the payment vehicle, in October 2015 and January 2016. A considerable number of protest responses may cause selectivity bias; consequently, we used models excluding protest zeros. Sample selection models were estimated using Heckman’s two-step and full information maximum likelihood methods The average willingness-to-pay (WTP) was estimated to be 13.79 RMB (equivalent to 2.00 USD) for the unconditional model, and the lower mean values were estimated for two selectivity bias corrected models. In this case, park visitors would be willing to pay an average 11.6 RMB (equivalent to 1.69 USD) per person according to the full information maximum likelihood estimate and an average 10.96 RMB (equivalent to 1.60 USD) per person by the two-step method. Respondents’ satisfaction of forest park facilities and service significantly influenced their WTP value for forest park improvements. Socio-demographic features could not effectively discriminate the protest bidders and the other non-protest bidders. Our results suggest that protesters may value the resource less than positive bidders. The high percentage of protest respondents may be due to the current free use of FNFP and payment vehicle of entrance fee. The CVM approach takes residents’ preferences into consideration and allows the study of heterogenous socio-demographic groups; thus, our data may help to develop effective management plans for improving urban forest parks in China.     

Swedish green space management – The managers perspective

This study has initiated the first stages of assessing the current state of Swedish parks through the use of a comprehensive survey sent to all Swedish park managers during the spring of 2016. The aim was to review the state of the Swedish public parks and undertake an assessment and analysis of the key issues and challenges that public parks in Sweden are currently facing. The Park Managers Survey was carried out as an online questionnaire sent to all local community (municipal) park managers and park departments in Sweden. The survey addressed issues of finance and resourcing; the quantity and quality of parks being managed; organizational arrangements for maintenance; information on park visitors and volunteers; and, issues of strategic policy making. The Swedish municipal green space managers regard the current quality of their green spaces to be fine and budgets for upkeep sufficient, just as they look optimistically into the nearest future. Their nearest future does not seem to have focus on voluntary support and alliances with local stakeholders in relation to the actual maintenance of green spaces. Both these trends contradict their UK counterparts. Swedish managers seem to be building a strong organization internally, and do not expect to increase the current use of private contractors. In general, we conclude that Swedish green space managers look optimistically to the nearest future.     

A quasi-experimental analysis on the causal effects of COVID-19 on urban park visits: The role of park features and the surrounding built environment

Although many studies have explored the correlations between mobility intervention policies and park use during COVID-19, only a few have used causal inference approaches to assessing the policy’s treatment effects and how such effects vary across park features and surrounding built environments. In this study, we develop an interrupted time-series quasi-experimental design based on three-month mobile phone big data to infer the causal effects of mobility intervention policies on park visits in Shenzhen, including the first-level response (FLR) and return-to-work (RTW) order. The results show that the FLR caused an abrupt decline of 2.21 daily visits per park, with a gradual reduction rate of 0.54 per day, whereas the RTW order helped recover park visits with an immediate increase of 2.20 daily visits and a gradual growth rate of 0.94 visits per day. The results also show that the impact of COVID-19 on park visits exhibited social and spatial heterogeneities: the mobility-reduction effect was smaller in low-level parks (e.g., community-level parks) with small sizes but without sports facilities and water scenes, whereas parks surrounded by compact neighborhoods and land use were more impacted by the pandemic. These findings provide planners with important insights into resilient green space and sustainable neighborhood planning for the post-COVID era.     

基于居民游憩需求的公园绿地可达性研究——以沈阳市铁西区为例

基于使用后评价（POE）,对沈阳市铁西区公园绿地的居民游憩需求特征进行调查分析,并提出基于居民主观可达性的公园绿地系统规划策略。以期为公园绿地的后期建设和布局优化提供一种新思路,并为其他资源型城市的绿地系统规划提供参考。     

Park availability,accessibility, and attractiveness in relation to the least and most vulnerable inhabitants

With this paper, we enrich the environmental justice debate by investigating differences in the provision of parks in Lodz, Poland, at three levels: availability, accessibility, and attractiveness. A park is ‘available’ when it exists within a suitable distance from where we live; it is ‘accessible’ when we feel that we are welcome there, and we can freely reach and safely use this park; it is ‘attractive’ when we willingly want to use it and spend time there. Our research hypothesis is that the most vulnerable groups of inhabitants concentrate around parks whose provision is affected by the largest number of barriers at each of the three levels, while the least vulnerable benefit from the vicinity of parks that are the least affected. Apart from the statistical analysis – the correlation between the indicators that represent the three levels of park provision and those that represent the most and least economically vulnerable using Pearson’s coefficient – we scrutinize three case study parks. The results confirm that there are inequalities at the level of attractiveness for the most vulnerable groups; meanwhile, no statistically significant results were recorded for the least vulnerable groups. The differences would probably be more explicit had socioeconomic segregation been higher in Lodz. The results may also be influenced by the unique postsocialist and postindustrial legacy of our city. The ongoing revitalization of the city center and the increased activity of developers may exclude the most vulnerable inhabitants and deepen segregation.     

Park and neighbourhood environmental characteristics associated with park-based physical activity among children in a high-density city

Constructing and renovating urban parks is an effective strategy for high-density cities to satisfy residents’ needs for recreation in nature. Using Hong Kong as an example of a high-density city, the purpose of this study was to examine the associations of park and neighbourhood environments with park-based physical activity (PA) among children and examine the moderating effect of neighbourhood income in their relationships. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 32 urban parks in Hong Kong. Park-based PA and the park and neighbourhood environments were measured using systematic observation tools and the geographic information system. Neighbourhood income was extracted from the 2011 Hong Kong Population Census data on median household income. A total of 7,753 children were observed using urban parks for PA during the study. Children’s park-based PA was positively associated with the quality of supporting amenities, park safety, neighbourhood walkability, and neighbourhood quality, while the associations of park-based PA with the diversity of active facilities and park size were not significant. In addition, neighbourhood income moderated the associations of park-based PA with the diversity of active facilities, the quality of supporting amenities, neighbourhood walkability, and neighbourhood quality. These findings provide empirical evidence on the moderating role of neighbourhood socioeconomic status on the associations between park and neighbourhood environments and children’s park-based PA in a high-density city. With children’s needs for using parks for PA, our findings are beneficial for urban planners to renovate existing urban parks to enhance their utility for children living in high-density cities.     

The relationship between the distribution and use patterns of parks and their spatial accessibility at the city level: A case study from Tehran,Iran

Parks are recognised as important elements of urban green infrastructure and for providing many benefits to city residents. In countries where urban growth is unplanned and sprawling, green space provision falls behind, inadequate amounts are provided or spaces are not located in the most effective places. Tehran, the capital of Iran, has experienced huge growth in population and corresponding sprawl in recent years. There has been no study of the effectiveness of parks as part of the range of green spaces in the city − their location, accessibility within the urban structure, relationship to the socio-demographic character of the population, amount per capita or quality and condition. Using a combination of existing data supplemented by new data from site surveys, this study firstly looked at the citywide scale of public open space in relation to population and socio-economic patterns. Second, a representative sample of 16 parks was examined in terms of their accessibility within the urban street structure using space syntax. The syntactical results were correlated with several different aspects of each park collected and rated on a 1–5 scale. The results showed a wide range of availability of parks with no specific pattern related to whether the district is better off or poor. The data on green space per district was often heavily biased by the presence of large areas of forest park or non-recreational land which gives a false picture.Many of the best parks are poorly integrated into the street network and found in the better off districts yet are very popular because they are “destination” parks in cooler, hilly areas. Poorly integrated parks in the inner city districts tended to show lower levels of maintenance, were often little used and had vandalism. Much more attention is needed to provide green space in an equitable way.     

Exploring preferences for biodiversity and wild parks in Chinese cities: A conjoint analysis study in Hangzhou

There has been a transformation of value orientation from an anthropocentric to eco-centric view in Chinese urban park design. Biodiversity enhancement has been increasingly seen as a prioritised park design aim by landscape designers. This promotes the rise of a novel park style with wild, less manicured appearance in cities, which shows strong contrasts to the traditional park style with ornamental, manicured characteristics. However, in this urban park transformation process, people’s opinion has been almost ignored. This research investigated the importance of biodiversity compared with other relevant urban park attributes (i.e., Facilities, Woodlands, Maintenance, and Seasonal views) identified from preliminary focus groups. The research further predicted preferences between wild and traditional urban parks. Conjoint analysis was used to address these questions. Five urban park attributes (i.e., Biodiversity, Facilities, Woodlands, Maintenance, and Seasonal views) were included in the conjoint questionnaire survey. The survey (N = 187) was conducted with the public and ecology/landscape professionals in Hangzhou, China. Results showed that for professionals, biodiversity was the most important attribute relative to others; for the public, both facilities and biodiversity were the most important attributes. Preferences for the two park styles varied between the two groups: professionals preferred wild parks, whereas the public preferred traditional parks. Yet, public preferences for wild parks were enhanced by improving maintenance levels and providing recreation facilities. The study concluded the appreciation of biodiversity among both the public and professionals. Differences in professional preferences for wild parks compared to the public should be considered when professionals design wild parks in the future.     

Park equity: Why subjective measures matter

Due to the various social and environmental benefits provided by urban parks and open spaces, ensuring that residents have equitable access to high-quality parks is paramount for planners and allied professionals. While research has identified inequities in park access based on race, ethnicity, and income, previous studies primarily focus on objective measures of access such as proximity to parks. Additionally, previous research typically includes single study regions that do not capture differences in distinct places. Relying on survey data from six metropolitan areas of the U.S., we address these gaps by investigating how subjective perceptions of parks vary by race/ethnicity and income (while controlling for other factors). Specifically, we employ linear mixed models to test for interaction effects between race/ethnicity and the six metro regions. We also compare subjective views of parks to ParkScore® rankings and metrics that represent park access. Overall, we found that perceived problems with park availability and quality were highest in the Baltimore area, as well as Los Angeles, Miami, and Boston; they were lowest is Phoenix and Minneapolis–St. Paul. Meanwhile, residents perceived significantly more improvements in park availability and quality in Miami and Minneapolis–St. Paul, followed by the other regions. Compared to objective ParkScore® measures, subjective perceptions of parks do not always follow the relative rankings of metrics for park access and quality. Additionally, Black and Hispanic residents perceived greater park problems than White residents, and Hispanic residents perceived more improvements than White residents. However, distinctions in public perceptions of parks by racial/ethnic groups and regions did not hold up in our mixed, multivariate models. Instead, our results highlight regionally distinct perceptions by race/ethnicity, suggesting that subjective views of park quality are context-dependent. In contrast, income is a more dominant driver of perceived improvements in local parks and open spaces. As a whole, this research underscores the need to consider both objective and subjective measures in particular geographic contexts to fully understand and plan for the equitable distribution of high-quality parks across diverse people and places.     

Can trail spatial attributes predict trail use level in urban forest park? An examination integrating GPS data and space syntax theory

Understanding users’ spatial distribution in forest park is crucial for providing visitors with quality recreation experiences and for park planning and management. Utilizing users’ spatial distribution data, this study aims at investigating associations between trail use level and trail spatial attributes, through examining two large urban forest parks (Gongqing forest park and Paotaiwan forest park) in Shanghai, China. Users’ spatial distribution was measured utilizing GPS trackers with the interval of 10 seconds. This study conceptualizes trail spatial attributes as trail metric attributes and trail configurational attributes. Trail metric attributes include trail mean distance to gates, length, width and level of enclosure, which are calculated based on park map and on-site observation. We computed trail configurational attributes utilizing space syntax theory, which comprise measures of global integration, control, and connectivity. Trail connection with features/facilities, visual connection with water and shading are included as covariate variables. In total, we obtained 134 valid samples in Gongqing forest park and 210 valid samples in Paotaiwan forest park for analysis. Multivariate regression analyses indicate that when involving covariate variables, consistently in both parks, a greater trail usage is significantly related to trail shorter mean distance to park gate, trail width wider than 3 meters, higher global integration and higher control values. Collectively, these four trail spatial attributes explained 31.7 % (p < 0.001) and 27.3 % (p < 0.001) of the variances in trail use level in Gongqing forest park and Paotaiwan forest park. These findings provide direct implications to park designers and managers for providing visitors with different desirable social conditions, and ultimately improve users’ experiences and satisfactions.     

Park user preferences for establishing a sustainable forest park in Taipei,Taiwan

In Taiwan, urban parks have mainly cared for demands associated with recreational use and landscape aesthetics, while ecological functions have often been neglected. The purpose of this study was to examine park users’ awareness of the functions of urban parks, their attitudes toward Amsterdam Bos Park as well as their preferences and support for a sustainable forest park in Taipei metropolitan area. Moreover, the study intended to inform the decision makers in Taiwan about people's perception of urban parks. The findings suggested that participants were moderately aware of the economic benefit of urban parks, and highly aware of urban parks’ benefits regarding landscape beauty, social values, health and safety, and ecological conservation. Participants moderately agreed with the financial demand, and highly agreed with the development strategy, managerial operation, and design approach of the Bos Park. In addition, participants liked the concept of the Bos Park very much, and strongly supported the establishment of a sustainable forest park in Taipei metropolitan area. Based on the findings, recommendations were made to the Taipei City government for the decision-making in the development of a metropolitan park, as well as to landscape architects in the planning and design of urban parks.