外源新碳在不同肥力土壤中的分配与固定

外源新碳加入土壤后,传统技术尚无法区分其与原土壤有机碳的不同。利用13C稳定同位素方法,通过室内培养实验,探讨玉米秸秆和根茬添加到不同肥力水平土壤后外源新碳在土壤中分配与固定的差异。结果表明:(1)低肥土壤添加叶28 d后土壤有机碳(SOC)含量高于添加根和茎的;高肥土壤添加叶在整个培养期间(1~180 d)SOC含量都高于添加根和茎;两种肥力水平土壤在添加玉米根、茎、叶180 d后SOC含量均接近相等。(2)玉米根、茎、叶的添加对SOC中外源新碳含量以及残体残留率的影响不同,28 d前低肥土壤外源新碳含量高于高肥土壤,28 d后结果与之相反;低肥土壤在培养28 d后添加根的残留率比添加茎和叶的低,高肥土壤在培养7 d后添加叶的残留率比添加根和茎的低。以上结果表明,外源新碳在土壤中的固定受其来源和土壤肥力水平的影响与制约。     

Short-term temperature dependence of heterotrophic soil respiration after one-month of pre-incubation at different temperatures

Quantification of microbial activities involved in soil organic carbon (SOC) decomposition is critical for the prediction of the long-term impact of climate change on soil respiration (SR) and SOC stock. Although the temperature sensitivity of SR is especially critical in semi-arid regions, such as North West Tunisia, where the SOC stock is low, little research has been carried out in these environments. More needs to be known about factors, such as SOC availability that influence temperature sensitivity. In this study, soil samples were incubated with and without glucose addition for 28 days after a 28-day pre-incubation period. Pre-incubation and incubation was carried out at 20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C and 50 °C. Respiration measurements were taken with temperature, glucose addition and incubation time as independent variables. The highest pre-incubation temperature reduced the temperature sensitivity of SR during the subsequent incubation period, both with and without glucose addition. Soil samples pre-incubated at 50 °C had the lowest SR at all subsequent incubation temperatures and the lowest temperature sensitivity of SR, even after glucose addition. However, after glucose addition, the effect of a high pre-incubation temperature on soil respiration lasted only two days. Measuring the water-soluble carbon (WSC) in soil samples suggested that the high pre-incubation temperature may have killed part of the microbial biomass, modified microbial communities or solubilized SOC. For quantifying the possible effect of global warming, in particular heat waves, on soil respiration in the soil studied, the results indicate a moderate response of soil respiration to temperature at high temperatures, as shown by Q₁₀ close to 1.7, even in the range 40-50 °C.     

Carbon flux from decomposing 13C-labeled transgenic and nontransgenic parental rice straw in paddy soil

Purpose

Genetic modification of Bt rice may affect straw decomposition and soil carbon pool under flood conditions. This study aims to assess the effects of cry gene transformation in rice on the residue decomposition and fate of C from residues under flooded conditions.

Materials and methods

A decomposition experiment was set up using ¹³C-enriched rice straws from transgenic and nontransgenic Bt rice to evaluate the soil C dynamics and CH₄ or CO₂ emission rates in the root and non-root zones. The concentrations and stable carbon isotope compositions of the soil organic carbon (SOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), CH₄, and CO₂ of the root and non-root zones were determined from 7 to 110 days after rice straw incorporation.

Results and discussion

Rice straw incorporation into soil significantly increased the SOC, DOC, and MBC concentrations and the CH₄ and CO₂ emission rates. The percentage of ¹³C-SOC remaining in the root zone was significantly lower than that in the non-root zone with rice straw decomposition. The DOC and MBC concentrations significantly increased in both the root and non-root zones between 0 and 80 days after rice straw incorporation. However, no significant differences were found after Bts (Bt rice straw added into soil) and Cks (nontransgenic Bt rice straw added into soil) incorporation in the root and non-root zones. This result may be attributed to the priming effects of sufficient oxygen and nutrients on straw degradation in the root zone.

Conclusions

Bt gene insertion did not affect the SOC, DOC, and MBC concentrations and the CH₄ and CO₂ emission rates in both the root and non-root zones. However, rice straw incorporation and root exudation significantly increased the SOC, DOC, and MBC concentrations and the CH₄ and CO₂ emission rates.     

稻草还田条件下水田和旱地土壤有机碳矿化特征与差异

采用14C示踪技术,通过100 d的原状土柱室内模拟试验,得出以下研究结果:培养100 d后,有34.74%(水田覆盖)、17.85%(水田翻埋)、35.68%(旱地覆盖)和36.06%(旱地翻埋)的稻草碳被矿化,水田和旱地土壤分别有0.99%～1.17%和2.25%～2.53%的原有有机碳被矿化。土地利用和稻草还田方式及两因素的交互作用,对添加稻草碳的矿化速率和累积矿化率均有显著影响(p<0.01),但对于土壤原有有机碳的矿化速率和累积矿化量,只有土地利用方式对其有显著影响(p<0.01);添加稻草后,土壤总累积矿化量没有发生显著变化(旱地翻埋除外),因为稻草还田抑制了土壤原有有机碳的降解,使100 d的累积矿化量相对于各自对照减少了13.95%(水田覆盖)、15.68%(水田翻埋)、11.04%(旱地覆盖)和3.34%(旱地翻埋)。水田翻埋和旱地覆盖是稻草资源合理利用的较好方式,更有利于土壤有机碳的积累;添加的稻草碳和土壤原有有机碳在水田的矿化速率均显著低于旱地,是水田有机碳含量通常高于同一景观单元旱地的主要原因之一。     

Dynamics of maize (Zea mays L.) leaf straw mineralization as affected by the presence of soil and the availability of nitrogen

An incubation experiment was carried out with maize (Zea mays L.) leaf straw to analyze the effects of mixing the residues with soil and N amendment on the decomposition process. In order to distinguish between soil effects and nitrogen effects for both the phyllospheric microorganisms already present on the surface of maize straw and soil microorganisms the N amendment was applied in two different placements: directly to the straw or to the soil. The experiment was performed in dynamic, automated microcosms for 22 days at 15 °C with 7 treatments: (1) untreated soil, (2) non-amended maize leaf straw without soil, (3) N amended maize leaf straw without soil, (4) soil mixed with maize leaf straw, (5) N amended soil, (6) N amended soil mixed with maize leaf straw, and (7) soil mixed with N amended maize leaf straw. ¹⁵NH₄¹⁵NO₃ (5 at%) was added. Gas emissions (CO₂, ¹³CO₂ and N₂O) were continuously recorded throughout the experiment. Microbial biomass C, biomass N, ergosterol, δ¹³C of soil organic C and of microbial biomass C as well as ¹⁵N in soil total N, mineral N and microbial biomass N were determined in soil samples at the end of the incubation. The CO₂ evolution rate showed a lag-phase of two days in the non-amended maize leaf straw treatment without soil, which was completely eliminated when mineral N was added. The addition of N generally increased the CO₂ evolution rate during the initial stages of maize leaf straw decomposition, but not the cumulative CO₂ production. The presence of soil caused roughly a 50% increase in cumulative CO₂ production within 22 days in the maize straw treatments due to a slower decrease of CO₂ evolution after the initial activity peak. Since there are no limitations of water or N, we suggest that soil provides a microbial community ensuring an effective succession of straw decomposing microorganisms. In the treatments where maize and soil was mixed, 75% of microbial biomass C was derived from maize. We concluded that this high contribution of maize using microbiota indicates a strong influence of organisms of phyllospheric origin to the microbial community in the soil after plant residues enter the soil.     

Manipulating N mineralization from high N crop residues using on- and off-farm organic materials

We have studied the possibilities of manipulating N mineralization from high N vegetable crop residues by the addition of organic materials, with the aim of initially immobilizing the mineralized residue N with a view to stimulating remineralization at a later stage. Residues of leek (Allium porrum) were incubated with soil, alone and in combination with straw, two types of green waste compost (with contrasting C:N ratios) and tannic acid. Evolution of mineral N was monitored by destructive sampling. After 15 weeks, molasses was added to part of the samples in each treatment, and incubation continued for another 12 weeks. All materials added during the first incubation stage, except the low C:N compost, resulted in significant immobilization of the residue N. The immobilization with the high C:N compost (41.4 mg N kg⁻¹ soil) was significantly larger than with tannic acid and straw (both immobilized about 26 mg N kg⁻¹ soil). In the straw treatment, remineralization started in the first stage of incubation from day 50 onwards. The addition of molasses caused a strong and significant remineralization in the second stage (equivalent to 73% of the N initially immobilized) in the treatment with the high C:N ratio compost. In the case of tannic acid, there was no consistent effect on mineralization from addition of molasses. This was attributed to the fact that the immobilization observed was due to chemical rather than biological fixation of the residue N. A number of non-toxic organic wastes could be considered for use in mediating release of immobilized N from high N crop residue materials in an attempt to synchronize residue N availability with crop N demand.     

Kinetics of native and added carbon mineralization on incubating at different soil and moisture conditions in Typic Ustochrepts and Typic Halustalf

The carbon dynamics in soils is of great importance due to its links to the global carbon cycle. The prediction of the behavior of native soil organic carbon (SOC) and organic amendments via incubation studies and mathematical modeling may bridge the knowledge gap in understanding complex soil ecosystems. Three alkaline Typic Ustochrepts and one Typic Halustalf with sandy, loamy sand, and clay loam texture, varying in percent SOC of 0.2; S₁, 0.42; S₂, 0.67; S₃ and 0.82; S₄ soils, were amended with wheat straw (WS), WS + P, sesbania green manure (GM), and poultry manure (PM) on 0.5% C rate at field capacity (FC) and ponding (P) moisture levels and incubated at 35 °C for 1, 15, 30 and 45 d. Carbon mineralization was determined via the alkali titration method after 1, 5, 7 14, 21, and 28 d. The SOC and inorganic carbon contents were determined from dried up (50 °C) soil samples after 1, 15, 30, and 45 d of incubation. Carbon from residue mineralization was determined by subtracting the amount of CO₂-C evolved from control soils. The kinetic models; monocomponent first order, two-component first order, and modified Gompertz equations were fitted to the carbon mineralization data from native and added carbon. The SOC decomposition was dependent upon soil properties, and moisture, however, added C was relatively independent. The carbon from PM was immobilized in S₄. All the models fitted to the data predicted carbon mineralization in a similar range with few exceptions. The residues lead to the OC build-up in fine-textured soils having relatively high OC and cation exchange capacities. Whereas, fast degradation of applied OC in coarse-textured soils leads to faster mineralization and lower build-up from residues. The decline in CaCO₃ after incubation was higher at FC than in the P moisture regime.     

长期不同施氮处理玉米根茬的田间分解特性

以7年氮肥定位试验地玉米根茬为研究对象,通过把玉米根茬按2%比例与15 cm和45 cm土层深度的土壤混合后田间埋袋的方法,研究长期不同施氮量处理[分别为0 kg(N)?hm?2、120 kg(N)?hm?2和240 kg(N)?hm?2]的玉米根茬(分别用R0、R120、R240表示),在陕西省长武黑垆土中埋藏分解1 a后对土壤碳、氮组分的影响及根茬有机碳的分解特性。与未添加玉米根茬的对照土壤相比,玉米根茬加入能够显著增加各层土壤的微生物量碳、可溶性有机碳和矿质态氮含量,3种施氮量处理间差异不显著。随着分解时间延长,土壤可溶性有机物中结构相对复杂的芳香类化合物比例逐渐增加。分解1 a后,R0、R120和R240根茬的有机碳残留率在15 cm土层中分别为44.4%、35.3%和34.9%,在45 cm土层中分别为53.3%、44.3%和42.5%。R0根茬的碳残留率显著高于R120和R240;玉米根茬在15 cm土层的碳分解率和分解速率常数显著高于45 cm土层。采用一级动力学方程拟合玉米根茬碳残留率变化结果显示,R0、R120和R240根茬有机碳分解95%所需要的时间在45 cm土层比15cm土层分别长3.2 a、2.3 a和1.9 a。氮肥施用量影响玉米根茬在土壤中的分解特性,在评价农田氮肥施用与土壤固碳时,应考虑不同氮肥用量下残茬养分组成及其在土壤中分解的差异。     

强冻融作用下土壤微生物残体碳的累积特征及其对玉米秸秆输入的响应

  【目的】  微生物残体碳是土壤稳定碳库的主要组成部分。探究不同冻融强度下东北黑土区土壤真菌和细菌残体碳的变化和积累特征,以及玉米秸秆对这一过程的影响,以加深对东北黑土土壤有机碳循环过程和微生物调控机理的认知,为东北黑土区土壤肥力提升提供理论支撑。  【方法】  研究采用室内模拟培养试验,供试材料为玉米秸秆和黑土。设置3个冻融强度处理:弱冻融(融冻温度/冻结温度为5℃/?4℃)、强冻融(融冻温度/冻结温度为5℃/?9℃)和5℃常温对照,每个冻融处理分别设置添加和不添加玉米秸秆处理。一个冻融循环为土壤样品在5℃培养24 h,逐渐降低温度至冻结温度,保持48 h,然后升温至5℃,直到总时间96 h (4天),然后进入下一个循环。冻融试验共进行了16次循环,总培养周期为65天。在第0、3、8、12和16次冻融后采集土壤样品,测定土壤氨基葡萄糖(真菌残体标识物)和胞壁酸(细菌残体标识物)含量,分析微生物残体碳的累积特征及其对土壤有机碳的贡献。  【结果】  不添加玉米秸秆条件下,强冻融处理在前期较恒温对照显著增加了真菌和细菌残体碳含量及其对土壤有机碳的贡献,降低了土壤真菌细菌残体碳比值(F/B),而弱冻融处理相关指标较恒温处理则变化不明显;在第16次循环,强冻融显著降低了微生物残体碳含量及其对土壤有机碳的贡献,增加了F/B值。在恒温和弱冻融处理中,添加秸秆在前期促进了真菌和细菌残体碳的累积,但在第16次循环,降低了真菌和细菌残体碳含量;而在强冻融处理中,添加秸秆则在试验结束时显著增加了细菌残体碳含量,降低了F/B值。试验结束时,添加秸秆后不同冻融强度对微生物残体碳贡献率影响不大。  【结论】  反复多次强冻融会降低土壤中微生物残体碳的累积,尤以细菌残体碳损失比例更大。添加玉米秸秆对真菌残体碳积累无显著影响,但能够显著增加细菌残体碳的积累,增加细菌残体碳的比例和其对土壤有机碳的贡献,在一定程度上抵消强冻融对微生物残体碳累积的不利影响。因此,添加秸秆可提高反复强冻融土壤中微生物源碳的稳定性。     

Nitrogen immobilization and mineralization during initial decomposition of15N-labelled pea and barley residues

The immobilization and mineralization of N following plant residue incorporation were studied in a sandy loam soil using¹⁵N-labelled field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) straw. Both crop residues caused a net immobilization of soil-derived inorganic N during the complete incubation period of 84 days. The maximum rate of N immobilization was found to 12 and 18 mg soil-derived N g^–1 added C after incorporation of pea and barley residues, respectively. After 7 days of incubation, 21% of the pea and 17% of the barley residue N were assimilated by the soil microbial biomass. A comparison of the¹⁵N enrichments of the soil organic N and the newly formed biomass N pools indicated that either residue N may have been assimilated directly by the microbial biomass without entering the soil inorganic N pool or the biomass had a higher preference for mineralized ammonium than for soil-derived nitrate already present in the soil. In the barley residue treatment, the microbial biomass N was apparently stabilized to a higher degree than the biomass N in the pea residue treatment, which declined during the incubation period. This was probably due to N-deficiency delaying the decomposition of the barley residue. The net mineralization of residue-derived N was 2% in the barley and 22% in the pea residue treatment after 84 days of incubation. The results demonstrated that even if crop residues have a relative low C/N ratio (15), transient immobilization of soil N in the microbial biomass may contribute to improved conservation of soil N sources.     

Distribution and fate of 13C-labeled root and straw residues from ryegrass and crimson clover in soil under western Oregon field conditions

Annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) were pulse-labeled with ¹³C-CO₂ in the field between the initiation of late winter growth (mid-February) and through flowering and seed formation (late May). Straw was harvested after seed maturation (July), and soil containing ¹³C-labeled roots and root-derived C was left in the field until September. ¹³C-enriched and ¹³C-unenriched straw residues of each species were mixed in factorial combinations with soil containing either ¹³C-enriched or ¹³C-unenriched root-derived C and incubated in the field for 10 months. The contributions of C derived from straw, roots, and soil were measured in soil microbial biomass C, respired C, and soil C on five occasions after residue incorporation (September, October, November, April, and June). At straw incorporation (September), 25–30% of soil microbial biomass C was derived from root C in both ryegrass and clover treatments, and this value was sustained in the ryegrass treatment from September to April but declined in the clover treatment. By October, between 20 and 30% of soil microbial biomass C was derived from straw, with the percentage contribution from clover straw generally exceeding that from ryegrass straw throughout the incubation. By June, ryegrass root-derived C contributed 5.5% of the soil C pool, which was significantly greater than the contributions from any of the three other residue types (about 1.5%). This work has provided a framework for more studies of finer scale that should focus on the interactions between residue quality, soil organic matter C, and specific members of the soil microbial community.     

Changes in the soil C and N contents,C decomposition and N mineralization potentials in a rice paddy after long-term application of inorganic fertilizers and organic matter

A long-term experiment on combined inorganic fertilizers and organic matter in paddy rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivation began in May 1982 in Yamagata, northeastern Japan. In 2012, after the 31^st harvest, soil samples were collected from five fertilizer treatments [(1) PK, (2) NPK, (3) NPK + 6 Mg ha^?1 rice straw (RS), (4) NPK + 10 Mg ha^?1 rice straw compost (CM1), and (5) NPK + 30 Mg ha^?1 rice straw compost (CM3)], at five soil depths (0–5, 5–10, 10–15, 15–20 and 20–25 cm), to assess the changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) content and carbon (C) decomposition potential, total nitrogen (TN) content and nitrogen (N) mineralization potential resulting from long-term organic matter addition. The C decomposition potential was assessed based on the methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced, while the N mineralization potential was determined from the potassium chloride (KCl)-extractable ammonium-nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N), after 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks of anaerobic incubation at 30°C in the laboratory. Compared to NPK treatment, SOC in the total 0–25 cm layer increased by 67.3, 21.0 and10.8%, and TN increased by 64.2, 19.7 and 10.6%, in CM3, RS and CM1, respectively, and SOC and TN showed a slight reduction in the PK treatment by 5.2 and 5.7%, respectively. Applying rice straw compost (10 Mg ha^?1) instead of rice straw (6 Mg ha^?1) to rice paddies reduced methane production by about 19% after the soils were measured under 8 weeks of anaerobic incubation at 30°C. Soil carbon decomposition potential (Co) and nitrogen mineralization potential (No) were highly correlated with the SOC and TN contents. The mean ratio of Co/No was 4.49, lower than the mean ratio of SOC/TN (13.49) for all treatments, which indicated that the easily decomposed organic matter was from soil microbial biomass and soil proteins.     

Respiration pattern and microbial use of field-grown transgenic Bt-maize residues

A 49-day incubation experiment was carried out with the addition of field-grown maize stem and leaf residues to soil at three different temperatures (5, 15, and 25 °C). The aim was to study the effects of two transgenic Bt-maize varieties in comparison to their two parental non-Bt varieties on the mineralization of the residues, on their incorporation into the microbial biomass and on changes in the microbial community structure. The stem and leaf residues of Novelis-Bt contained 3.9 μg g⁻¹ dry weight of the Bt toxin Cry1Ab and those of Valmont-Bt only 0.8 μg g⁻¹. The residues of the two parental non-Bt varieties Nobilis and Prelude contained higher concentrations of ergosterol (+220%) and glucosamine (+190%) and had a larger fungal C-to-bacterial C ratio (+240%) than the two Bt varieties. After adding the Bt residues, an initial peak in respiration of an extra 700 μg CO₂-C g⁻¹ soil or 4% of the added amount was observed in comparison to the two non-Bt varieties at all three temperatures. On average of the four varieties, 19-38% of the maize C added was mineralized during the 49-day incubation at the three different temperatures. The overall mean increase in total maize-derived CO₂ evolution corresponded to a Q₁₀ value of 1.4 for both temperature steps, i.e. from 5 to 15 °C and from 15 to 25 °C. The addition of maize residues led to a strong increase in all microbial properties analyzed. The highest contents were always measured at 5 °C and the lowest at 25 °C. The variety-specific contents of microbial biomass C, biomass N, ATP and adenylates increased in the order Novelis-Bt ? Prelude<Valmont-Bt ? Nobilis. The mineralization of Novelis-Bt residues with the highest Bt concentration and lowest N concentration and their incorporation into the microbial biomass was significantly reduced compared to the parental non-Bt variety Nobilis. These negative effects increased considerably from 5 to 25 °C. The transgenic Bt variety Valmont did not show further significant effects except for the initial peak in respiration at any temperature.     

长期氮肥施用对玉米根茬矿化分解的影响

通过室内培养和田间分解试验,研究了施氮量为N 0、120和240 kg/hm2处理的玉米根茬(R0、R120、R240)在15和45 cm两个肥力条件不同的土层中有机碳矿化分解特性及其对土壤活性有机碳组分的影响。结果表明,在室内矿化培养条件下,根茬CO2累积释放量和潜在碳矿化量均为R120R240R0;R120和R240根茬碳矿化率在表层土壤(15 cm)和底层土壤(45 cm)中分别较R0提高21.1%、12.7%和45.3%、33.7%。在田间埋藏分解条件下,分解386 d后R0、R120和R240根茬碳残留率在表层土壤中分别为36.3%、25.2%和28.7%,在底层土壤中分别为38.4%、30.6%和31.1%;根茬碳残留率与其C/N、木质素含量以及木质素/N正相关,而与根茬全氮含量呈负相关关系,表明根茬分解率随着其本身全氮含量的增加而提高;添加玉米根茬显著增加土壤微生物量碳含量143%~297%,增加土壤可溶性有机碳含量19.9%~118.2%。综上可见,长期施用氮肥影响作物根系的养分组成,显著提高其全氮含量,在评价土壤碳、氮养分循环时,应注重长期氮肥施用对作物残茬养分累积及其在土壤中分解、转化的影响。     

Carbon flow from C-labeled straw and root residues into the phospholipid fatty acids of a soil microbial community under field conditions

To better understand how residue quality and seasonal conditions influence the flow of C from both root and straw residues into the soil microbial community, we followed the incorporation of ¹³C-labeled crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) root and straw residues into the phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) of soil microbial biomass. After residue incorporation under field conditions in late summer (September), the ¹³C content of soil PLFA was measured in September, October, and November, 2002, and April and June, 2003. Multivariate non-metric multidimensional scaling techniques showed that the distribution of ¹³C among microbial PLFA differed among the four primary treatments (ryegrass straw and roots, clover straw and roots). Regardless of treatment, some PLFA remained poorly labeled with ¹³C throughout much of the study (16:1ω5, 10Me17:0; 0-5%), whereas other PLFA consistently contained a larger percentage of residue-derived C (16:0; 18:1ω9, 18:2ω6,9; 10-25%). The distribution of residue ¹³C among individual PLFA differed from the relative contributions of individual PLFA (mol%) to total PLFA-C, suggesting that a subset of the soil biomass was primarily responsible for assimilating residue-derived C. The distribution of ¹³C among soil PLFA differed between the sampling times, indicating that residue properties and soil conditions influenced which members of the community were assimilating residue-derived C. Our findings will provide the foundation for further studies to identify the nature of the community members responsible for residue decomposition at different times of the year, and what factors account for the dynamics of the community involved.     

Soil biodegradation of maize root residues: Interaction between chemical characteristics and the presence of colonizing micro-organisms

Due to their direct contact with the soil, roots are exposed to colonizing micro-organisms that persist after the plant has died. These micro-organisms may affect intrinsic root-chemical quality and the kinetics of root residue decomposition in soil, or interact with soil micro-organisms during the decomposition process. The aims in this work were i) to determine the interactions between the presence of root-colonizing micro-organisms and root-chemical quality and ii) to quantify the effect of these micro-organisms on root decomposition. Roots were selected from six maize genotypes cultivated in the field and harvested at physiological maturity. The roots of two genotypes (F2 and F2bm1) had a higher N content, lower neutral sugars content and higher Klason lignin content than the other genotypes (F292, F292bm3, Mexxal, Colombus). Location of the root residue micro-organisms by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy revealed that F2 and F2bm1 roots were more colonized than roots of the other genotypes. Electron Dispersive X-Ray microanalyses of in situ N confirmed a higher N content in the colonizing micro-organisms than in the root cell walls. Residues of F2 and F2bm1 roots decomposed more slowly and to a lesser extent than those of the other genotypes during incubation in a silty loam soil under controlled conditions (15 °C, −80 kPa). After 49 days, 40.6% of the total C from F292 was mineralized but only 20.7% of from F2bm1. These results suggest that residue-colonizing micro-organisms decompose the cell-wall sugars to varying extents before soil decomposition thereby modifying the chemical quality of the residues and their mineralization pattern in soil. Due to their high N content, colonizing micro-organisms also impact on the total N content of root residues, reducing their C to N ratio. Gamma sterilized root residues were incubated under the same conditions as non-sterilized residues to see if micro-organisms colonizing root residues could modify the action of soil micro-organisms during decomposition. Similar C mineralization rates were observed for both non-sterilized and sterilized residues, indicating that the residue micro-organisms did not quantitatively affect the activity of soil micro-organisms.     

Role of soil and residue microorganisms in determining the extent of residue decomposition in soil

The effects of residue (wheat straw or sewage-sludge compost) incorporation in soil and the relative contribution of microorganisms in the residues, or in the soil to decomposition of the added residue, (CO₂ production) was evaluated in an incubation experiment. All residues and soils were adjusted to 33 kPa moisture tension and maintained at 25°C under a constant flow of CO₂-free air for 72 days. Residue decomposition was determined by monitoring CO₂ evolution from the treatments.

Mixing an aged sewage-sludge compost (10%, 224 Mg ha⁻¹) with soil stimulated decomposition of the compost 1.64-fold when compared with any of the localized placements, and indicated that the indigenous soil microorganisms were the major contributors to the transformations of this mature compost. Wheat straw was populated with organisms capable of decomposing readily-available substrates in the straw during the first stage of the decomposition, whereas it appeared that soil organisms contributed to an acceleration of straw decomposition during the final stages. After 65 days approx. 30% of the added wheat straw C had been evolved as CO₂. Soil basidiomycetes doubled the extent of decomposition when the indigenous decomposers in wheat were inactivated by γ-irradiation. Model equations are presented for residue decomposition relative to time.     

Influence of straw size on activity and biomass of soil microorganisms during decomposition

This study relates to the pattern of activity and biomass of soil microorganisms due to varying residue particle sizes during incubation. Wheat straw (8 t ha^–1) of different sizes (powdered, 0.9 cm, 1.8 cm, 2.9 cm and 4.4 cm) was incubated for 90 days at 50% water holding capacity in a loamy sand soil of Typic Camborthid. Dehydrogenase activity, an indicator of the total microbial activity, and microbial biomass were influenced by straw sizes during incubation. The peak dehydrogenase activity was recorded 21 days after incorporation of residue and it was highest in the powdered straw and decreased with increase in the straw length. The maximum biomass C build up was observed between 15 (< 1 cm) and 45 (> 1 cm) days after incorporation. The C:N ratio in the soil after 90 days of residue incorporation varied, with increase in straw size, between 12.1:1 and 20.8:1. The results reveal that for faster decomposition the length of the wheat straw should not exceed 1 cm.     

Nitrogen immobilization and mineralization during initial decomposition of15N-labelled pea and barley residues

The immobilization and mineralization of N following plant residue incorporation were studied in a sandy loam soil using¹⁵N-labelled field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) straw. Both crop residues caused a net immobilization of soil-derived inorganic N during the complete incubation period of 84 days. The maximum rate of N immobilization was found to 12 and 18 mg soil-derived N g^?1 added C after incorporation of pea and barley residues, respectively. After 7 days of incubation, 21% of the pea and 17% of the barley residue N were assimilated by the soil microbial biomass. A comparison of the¹⁵N enrichments of the soil organic N and the newly formed biomass N pools indicated that either residue N may have been assimilated directly by the microbial biomass without entering the soil inorganic N pool or the biomass had a higher preference for mineralized ammonium than for soil-derived nitrate already present in the soil. In the barley residue treatment, the microbial biomass N was apparently stabilized to a higher degree than the biomass N in the pea residue treatment, which declined during the incubation period. This was probably due to N-deficiency delaying the decomposition of the barley residue. The net mineralization of residue-derived N was 2% in the barley and 22% in the pea residue treatment after 84 days of incubation. The results demonstrated that even if crop residues have a relative low C/N ratio (15), transient immobilization of soil N in the microbial biomass may contribute to improved conservation of soil N sources.     

Biotic and abiotic processes of nitrogen immobilization in the soil-residue interface

The interface between decaying plant residues and soil is a hotspot for microbial immobilization of soil inorganic N. Recent studies on forest and grassland soils have demonstrated that rapid abiotic immobilization of inorganic N is also induced by the presence of plant residues. We, therefore, examined (1) how N immobilization varies with distance from the soil-residue interface and (2) whether abiotic immobilization occurs in agricultural soils. Spatiotemporal changes of N immobilization in the soil-residue interface were evaluated using a box that enabled soil to be sampled in 2 mm increments from a 4 mm-thick residue compartment (RC). The RC was filled with paddy soil containing ground plant residue (rice bran, rice straw or beech leaves) uniformly at a rate of 50 g dry matter kg⁻¹. Soil in the surrounding compartments contained no residue. After aerobic incubation for 5, 15 and 30 days at 25 °C, soils in each compartment were analyzed. After 5 days, significant depletion of inorganic N occurred throughout a volume of soil extending at least 10 mm from the RC in all residue treatments, suggesting extensive diffusion of inorganic N towards the RC. The depletion within 10 mm of the RC amounted to 5.0, 4.3 and 3.4 mg for rice bran, rice straw and beech leaf treatment, respectively. On the other hand, microbial N had increased significantly in the RC of the rice bran and rice straw treatments (11 mg and 5.5 mg, respectively) and insignificantly in the RC of the beech leaf treatment (0.06 mg). This increase amounted to 221% (rice bran), 129% (rice straw) and 1.7% (beech leaves) of the decrease in inorganic N within 10 mm of each RC. Thereafter the rate of N mineralization exceeded that of immobilization, and inorganic N levels had recovered almost to their original level by 15 days (rice bran) and 30 days (rice straw and beech leaves). These results suggested the predominance of biotic immobilization in soil near rice bran and rice straw and of abiotic immobilization in soil near beech leaves. No significant increase in both microbial and soluble organic N in the vicinity of beech leaves after incubation for 5 days further suggested that the abiotic process was responsible for the transformation of inorganic N into the insoluble organic N.