Adjusting worm egg counts for faecal moisture in sheep

The number of eggs from gastrointestinal nematodes per gram of faeces (worm egg count WEC) is commonly used to determine the need for anti-parasite treatments and the breeding value of animals when selecting for worm resistance. Diarrhoea increases faecal moisture and may dilute the number of worm eggs observed. To quantify this effect, egg counts in sheep at pasture were simulated by dosing 15 animals with chromic oxide particles. The simulated WEC diminished as faecal moisture increased. When faeces were dried, simulated WEC per unit dry matter was not influenced by the amount of faecal moisture present prior to drying. The results suggest that adjustment for faecal moisture may provide an improved estimate of FEC. Drying faeces to calculate the WEC per unit dry matter would provide such an adjustment but may not be practical for industry application. In the past, the CSIRO McMaster Laboratory has used an adjustment factor developed by Gordon based on the classification of faecal consistency derived from the morphology of faeces. To examine the utility of an adjustment factor based on faecal consistency score (FCS), the relationships between FCS and simulated WEC and dry matter were examined. Dry matter and simulated WEC exhibited an exponential decline as FCS increased. The relationship between FCS and dry matter was further examined in 368 samples collected over 12 months from sheep at pasture, where it was observed that dry matter showed a linear decline as FCS increased. Adjustment factors based on dry matter were similar to those proposed by Gordon however adjustment factors predicted from simulated WEC diverged from the remainder for FCS>4. As no samples scored FCS 5 in the study of simulated FEC, the adjustment factors based on the larger study that included samples with FCS 5 was therefore considered more robust. Adjustment factors were given by the equation: WEC(estimated)=(WEC(observed)/(34.21-5.15 FCS))x29.06. This equation estimates for samples with FCS>1 the WEC that would be expected if the samples were FCS 1, the faecal consistency score for normal faeces. The impact of adjustment of observed WEC for faecal moisture predicted by FCS on decision points for treatment and on estimated breeding values requires further examination.     

Dietary effects on bifidobacteria and Clostridium perfringens in the canine intestinal tract

Dietary effects on the intestinal microflora have gained increasing interest because of the evidence that a balanced micro ecology in the gut is important for health and well being. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of different diets on faecal counts of bifidobacteria and Clostridium perfringens in dogs. Two extruded, dry diets, one supplemented with 3% chicory (1.5% inulin), a non-digestible oligosaccharide (NDO) and the other with 3% glucose (GLU) were compared with a protein rich diet (PR+) based on low quality animal derived protein sources (NDO 265, GLU 259, PR+ 726 g crude protein/kg dry matter; greaves meal and bovine lung as protein sources in PR+). Nine adult beagles were subjected to a consecutive cross-over trial. All dogs started with diet PR+, after which groups of four dogs (group A) received GLU and the other five dogs (group B) received NDO. After an intermediate wash-out period with diet PR+ for 3 weeks the A dogs were switched to diet NDO and B dogs to GLU. In the final period all dogs were fed with diet PR+. Faecal samples were collected during each period for dry matter and pH measurements. Faecal bifidobacteria and Cl. perfringens were quantified in fresh samples at the end of each feeding period and additionally on the first days after feed change from the dry diets to diet PR+. Diets NDO and GLU increased faecal dry matter and reduced faecal pH from 6.9 to 7.4 with the high protein diet to 5.9-6.5. The dry diets induced a firmer faecal consistency and a lower faecal pH, with no significant difference between NDO or GLU. Clostridium perfringens was found in all faecal specimens after feeding PR+ with counts of log 8.2-8.8 colony forming units (cfu)/g faeces. Both dry diets reduced the counts of Cl. perfringens significantly (log 3.3-4.0 cfu/g faeces). Switching from the dry diets to the high protein diet induced an increase of Cl. perfringens within 1 day, independent of the previous diet. In dogs fed PR+, bifidobacteria were detected in only four faecal samples and exclusively in the initial feeding period. During the remainder of the experiment the counts fell below the detection limit (log 6 cfu/g faeces). The faecal concentrations of bifidobacteria increased with both dry diets. Slightly higher concentrations (log 9.6-9.7 cfu/g faeces) were obtained from dogs fed the dry diet containing NDO compared with the diet containing glucose (log 9.3-9.4 cfu/g faeces). The increase was small which may be related to the level of total fermentable carbohydrates in both diets which alone increase remarkably the total counts of bifidobacteria. In conclusion, distinct dietary effects on the faecal counts of Cl. perfringens and bifidobacteria with a clear antagonistic pattern were observed. The main factor was the protein source and level in the diet. In this case, NDO favoured the concentrations of bifidobacteria to a limited degree. Further studies are needed to evaluate time effects, metabolic consequences and the potential implication for health promotion in pets.     

The effect of salt and bentonite supplementation on feed and water intake, faecal characteristics and urine output in sheep

The effects of the addition of salt (sodium chloride) and sodium bentonite to hay-based pelleted rations on feed and water intake, digestibility, the output of urine and faeces, and faecal consistency were evaluated under conditions resembling those used for the shipment of live sheep. The addition of salt to the diet had no effect on dry matter intake but increased water intake relative to controls (P<0.01), with commensurate increases in urinary output of more than 1 litre/sheep/day. The diet with bentonite plus salt resulted in a higher dry matter intake than controls (P<0.01). The addition of bentonite increased the faecal dry matter percentage (P<0.05). The effects of the additives on faecal water evaporative loss and hardness were not significant. A large variation (52.1-62.6%) between sheep in dry matter digestibility of feeds was not affected by treatment and this requires further investigation. It is recommended that salt not be added to diets used for live sheep shipments.     

Digestive physiology of captive giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla): determinants of faecal dry matter content

Giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) are specialized insectivores and consume mainly ants and termites in the wild. In captivity, giant anteaters are either fed a complete diet, or a combination of a domestic carnivore diet with leaf eater pellets, or a traditional gruel‐type diet. Soft faeces are a frequently encountered problem with this type of feeding. In the present study, we analysed diet and faeces composition, calculated digestibility and measured mean retention time on various diets in eight giant anteaters (total of n = 64 experiments). The results suggest that the digestive physiology of giant anteaters is similar to that of domestic dogs and cats in terms of nutrient digestibility and digesta retention. When testing correlations between faecal dry matter content and other variables, no relationship with dietary crude fibre content or mean digesta retention time could be detected. However, acid insoluble ash intake was significantly and positively correlated with faecal dry matter content. The amount of acid insoluble ash excreted with the faeces was higher than that ingested with the diet offered, indicating that the giant anteaters ingested soil from their enclosure of up to 93 g per day. This finding is consistent with observation of faeces of wild giant anteaters that contain soil or sand most likely due to indiscriminate feeding. It also corresponds to reports that indigestible materials such as peat, soil, chitin or cellulose contribute to a firmer faecal consistency in various carnivore species. Therefore, offering giant anteaters the opportunity to voluntarily ingest soil from their enclosure might be beneficial.     

Quantitative observations on experimental reo-like virus (rotavirus) infection in colostrum-deprived calves.

Ten calves were challenged with one of two strains of reo-like virus (rotavirus). Changes in the daily faecal and urinary outputs were monitored and packed cell volume, plasma sodium, potassium and urea levels were measured. Faeces were examined for the presence of rotavirus by direct electron microscopy and immunofluorescence in cultures of PK(15) cells. All calves excreted rotavirus in the faeces for several days. Two calves remained clinically normal throughout the experiment, but in the remaining calves, faeces became mucoid in consistency and yellow-white in colour. In only two calves did the daily faecal output exceed 500 g with a fall in the dry matter content to less than 10 per cent. Slightly elevated blood urea levels and hyperkalaemia were the only changes observed in blood chemistry and these quickly returned to normal. Virus antigen was observed in the epithelial cells by immunofluorescence in the proximal and middle small intestine of calves. Pathological lesions occurred predominantly in the proximal small intestine of nine calves examined.     

Observations of variable inter-observer agreement for clinical evaluation of faecal consistency in grow-finishing pigs

Inter-observer agreement for assessment of faecal consistency in pigs was evaluated using a scoring system with 3 categories. In a pilot study, 3 observers performed an examination of faecal samples post-collection. The samples were obtained from pigs (12-13 weeks old) in 4 herds with a history of diarrhoea associated with Lawsonia intracellularis, Brachyspira spp. and/or Porcine Circovirus Type 2. Observer 1 examined all the faecal samples from the 4 herds. Observer 2 only examined the faecal samples from herds 1 and 2. Observer 3 only examined the faecal samples from herds 3 and 4. We observed a substantial agreement in faecal consistency scores between Observers 1 and 3 (kappa=0.64, 95% CI: 0.51-0.78). In contrast, only a fair agreement was observed between Observers 1 and 2 (kappa=0.24, 95% CI: 0.14-0.34). The variations in inter-observer agreement detected in the current study suggest that misclassification error can be a problem in studies assessing faecal consistency. Solutions may include developing a standardized system for scoring the consistency of pig faeces, calibration when more than one observer is involved in clinical studies and using a more objective measure of faecal consistency.     

Magnesium balance in adult cats fed a dry food rich in lactose

The question addressed was whether lactose consumption would stimulate apparent magnesium absorption in adult cats. In a cross-over study, eight cats were fed dry diets without or with 10% lactose, which was added at the expense of the glucose component. Urine and faeces were quantitatively collected and the balance of magnesium, calcium and phosphorus was determined. Lactose feeding did not affect mineral absorption. The dry matter content of faeces was unchanged after lactose consumption. Urinary excretion of galactose represented 0.2% of the intake. It is concluded that lactose ingestion at a level of 1.2 g/kg body weight has no effect on mineral absorption and on the consistency of faeces in adult cats.     

Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in goat kid faeces: comparison of a latex agglutination test with three other conventional techniques

Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts from goat kid faeces: comparison of a latex agglutination test with three other conventional techniques. A quantitative latex agglutination test (QLAT) with monoclonal antibodies for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in faeces was compared with 3 other conventional techniques: Heine staining on faecal smears (HS) giving semi-quantitative results (scores from 1 to 5), sucrose flotation on diluted faeces (SF) with results expressed in oocysts/g of faeces (opg), direct ELISA (DE) giving qualitative results. Goat kid unconcentrated faecal samples (234) from 8 farms were processed according to the 4 techniques. Data were analyzed with Win Episcope 1.0 and Testview 1.1 softwares. The oocyst outputs ranged from 100 000 (detection limit for SF) to 200 millions opg (mean: 15.2 millions opg). A very good agreement was recorded between QLAT and HS, SF, DE: Kappa values ranged between 0.82 and 0.90. When considering the samples exhibiting oocysts (or not) as positive (or negative) using both HS and SF (n = 219), the sensitivity and specificity of QLAT were respectively 95.1 and 96.0%. The lack of sensitivity was observed in faeces harboring a few oocysts (< or = 200 000 opg, scores < or = 2) whereas the lack of specificity was only observed in 3 samples originating from the same farm. A significant correlation was calculated between the percentage of agglutination in QLAT and the number of oocysts in SF or scores in HS (Spearman correlation ranging from 0.45 to 0.48, p < 0.001). QLAT is a rapid, simple and reliable tool for routine detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in faeces.     

Effects of different feeding and housing conditions on dry matter content and consistency of faeces in sows

In a study with sows at various stages of the reproductive cycle, the effects of parturition, feed quantity and composition (content and type of crude fibre), exercise and access to water on dry matter content, and consistency of faeces were estimated. Parturition caused an increase in the dry matter content and reduced the defaecation frequency. The restriction of feed amounts in the last days of gestation and the change to lactation feed with reduced crude fibre content (6-3% in feed) intensified the physiologically occurring increase of the dry matter content. Moving activity and the amount of water ingested had only a small insignificant effect on the moisture of the faeces. The faeces became markedly softer when large amounts of fermentable fibre were used in the diet. The risk for constipation in periparturient sows increases when feed amounts and fibre content in the diet are strongly reduced. Therefore, it is recommended to offer sows daily minimum amounts of a diet (<2 kg) containing >7-8% crude fibre (including a highly fermentable fibre to improve faeces consistency) especially on the days near parturition.     

Cryptosporidium and Giardia associated with reduced lamb carcase productivity

On two extensive sheep farms in southern Western Australia, 111 (Farm A) and 124 (Farm B) female crossbred lambs (2-6 weeks old) were randomly selected and individually identified using ear tags (a numbered tag and radio-frequency tag) at marking. On five separate occasions, faecal samples were collected and live weight, body condition score (BCS), faecal consistency score (FCS), breech fleece faecal soiling score and faecal dry matter percentage (DM%) were recorded. Lamb hot carcase weight (HCW) and dressing percentage were measured at slaughter. Faecal samples were screened by PCR for Cryptosporidium (18S rRNA, actin and 60 kDa glycoprotein [gp60] loci), Giardia duodenalis (glutamate dehydrogenase [gdh] and triosephosphate isomerise [tpi]) and Campylobacter jejuni (16S rRNA). Observation of Eimeria oocysts and faecal worm egg counts (WECs) were performed using a modified McMaster technique. The WECs were adjusted for FCS for analyses. Faecal samples were screened for patent strongylid infections using PCR (specifically ITS-2 nuclear ribosomal DNA for Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp. and Haemonchus contortus). Lambs positive for Cryptosporidium at least once had lighter HCWs by 1.25 kg (6.6%) (P=0.029) and 1.46 kg (9.7%) (P<0.001) compared to lambs never positive for Cryptosporidium for Farms A and B respectively. Similarly, dressing percentages were 1.7% (P=0.022) and 1.9% (P<0.001) lower in Cryptosporidium-positive lambs on Farms A and B respectively. Lambs positive for Giardia at least once had 0.69 kg (P<0.001) lighter HCWs and 1.7% (P<0.001) lower dressing percentages compared to lambs never positive for Giardia on Farm B only. Cryptosporidium-positive lambs at the second sampling were 4.72 (P=0.010) and 3.84 (P=0.002) times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces compared to Cryptosporidium-negative lambs for Farms A and B respectively. Breech fleece faecal soiling scores of Cryptosporidium-positive lambs were 3.36 (P=0.026) and 2.96 (P=0.047) times more likely to be moderate to severe (scores 3-5), compared to negative lambs at the second sampling for Farms A and B respectively. Live weight, growth rate and BCS were inconsistently associated with protozoa detection across different samplings and farms. Adjusted WEC was correlated positively with FCS and negatively with faecal DM%, differing between sampling occasions and farms. Campylobacter jejuni prevalence was very low (<1%). Adjusted WEC were not correlated with carcase attributes, growth rates or live weights. This study is the first to quantify productivity consequences of naturally acquired protozoa infections in lambs managed under extensive farming conditions.     

Association between average daily gain,faecal dry matter content and concentration of Lawsonia intracellularis in faeces

Background

The objective of this study was to investigate the association between average daily gain and the number of Lawsonia intracellularis bacteria in faeces of growing pigs with different levels of diarrhoea.

Methods

A longitudinal field study (n = 150 pigs) was performed in a Danish herd from day 29 to 47 post weaning. Every third day all pigs were weighed, subjected to a clinical examination and faecal samples were obtained. Faecal samples were subjected to dry matter determination and absolute quantification by PCR for L. intracellularis and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). Association between average daily gain, faecal dry matter content, numbers of L. intracellularis bacteria and PCV2 genome copies in faeces was investigated in a multilevel mixed-effects linear model.

Results

Increasing numbers of L. intracellularis log₁₀ bacteria/g faeces were significantly associated with decreasing average daily gain (P < 0.001). The association was decreasing with increasing faecal dry matter content (P < 0.01). The number of PCV2 log₁₀ copies/g faeces was not significantly associated with average daily gain of the pigs (P > 0.5).

Conclusion

The results suggest a potential application of a PCR quantifying L. intracellularis in growing pigs. Faecal dry matter content must be taken into consideration in interpretation of such test results.     

Influence of cellulose fibre length on faecal quality,mineral excretion and nutrient digestibility in cat

In dogs, faeces quality and nutrients digestibility were affected by different types of cellulose ( Wichert et al., 2002 ). In this study, it was investigated whether there are comparable effects of cellulose type in cats. Seven adult, healthy cats were fed a moist commercial complete cat food with three different cellulose type added at a level of 4% for a 1 week period. Faeces quality was between 1 and 3 on the scale used from 1 to 5. The addition of long fibre cellulose resulted in significantly firmer faeces. Addition of cellulose decreased the digestibility of dry matter and energy, whereas the impact on protein and fat digestibility was not significant. The type of cellulose affected faecal bulk and faecal water excretion. Faecal excretion of sodium and potassium was exponentially correlated to faecal water, faecal bulk and to a lesser extent to faecal dry matter excretion. Faecal calcium, magnesium and phosphorus excretion showed an exponential correlation to faecal dry matter excretion. A weaker correlation existed in all three elements to faecal bulk, whereas the effect of faecal water excretion was small. Results suggest a remarkable likeness between cats and dogs with regard to the digestive physiology of major minerals.     

The effects of Buscopan compositum on calf nutritional diarrhoea

Nutritional diarrhoea was induced in male Friesian calves by the addition of sucrose to their milk replacer diet in two experiments. In each study the calves were paired on the basis of the severity of the diarrhoea and each of a pair of calves was assigned at random to receive a course of six intramuscular injections (5 ml/50 kg body weight) of either a placebo or Buscopan compositum (morning and evening) over a period of 3 days. In an initial study, which involved 10 pairs of calves, daily faecal and urine output were collected separately for each calf on the day prior to the start of treatment and on each day of the 3 treatment days. The daily output of fresh faeces was reduced as a result of treatment with Buscopan compositum and the overall reduction for the complete 3 day period was 18.7%. This was also reflected in a reduced output of faecal water (18.4%) during the same period. The digestibility of the dry matter component of the diet was significantly increased by 5.8%.In a second experiment, which involved 24 pairs of calves, faecal samples were collected daily, commencing before initiation of treatment, for determination of faecal dry matter content. The pattern of change in the faecal dry matter content during the course of the study differed clearly for the two treatments. Faecal dry matter increased from its lowest level (11.7%), immediately prior to first treatment, to its maximum (21.8%) on the second day of treatment in the Buscopan compositum-treated calves. In the placebo-treated calves, however, the faecal dry matter content increased gradually until the end of the study, at which time it was still 9.8% lower than that of the Buscopan compositum-treated calves on the second day of treatment.The results of these studies show that Buscopan compositum has a useful role to play in the management of nutritionally induced calf scour.     

Direct effects of Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae) acetone leaf extract on broiler chickens naturally infected with Eimeria species

Avian coccidiosis is one of the most important diseases of poultry and it is responsible for a large number of all broiler mortalities worldwide. The control of this disease relies mainly on the use of anticoccidial drugs. However, herbal preparations could be an alternative for the treatment against coccidiosis in chickens. The direct effects of Moringa oleifera acetone extracts on broiler chickens naturally infected with mixed Eimeria species was investigated to determine the relative efficacy of the extracts against coccidiosis in birds. The investigations were carried out in seven groups (ten chickens per group). The birds were given various doses (1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 g/kg body weight) of acetone extract of leaves of M. toltrazuril® (positive control) and untreated (negative control). The extract was evaluated for anticoccidial activity by means of inhibition of oocyst output in faeces, faecal score, weight gain and mortality. Haematological indices were evaluated by standard methods. The group treated with 1.0 g/ kg body weight Moringa oleifera extract produced the least inhibitory effect on oocyst shed in the faeces (96.4 %), while the groups treated with 2.0 g/kg, 3.0 g/kg, 4.0 g/kg and 5.0 g/kg body weight of the extract produced 97.4, 98.7, 99.1 and 99.8 %, respectively. Body weight gains of infected chickens treated with the extract significantly improved (p?<?0.05), and faecal scores were milder. Packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration and red blood count of the treated birds were significantly (p?<?0.05) higher than those of the infected untreated group. Moringa oleifera leaves could find application in the treatment of avian coccidiosis in veterinary practice.     

Water intake in domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from open dishes and nipple drinkers under different water and feeding regimes

Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are often presented suffering from urolithiasis. A high water intake is important in the prophylaxis of uroliths. We investigated the influence factors for water intake using 12 rabbits subjected to different feed and water regimes with practical relevance: Hay, fresh parsley, a seed mix and two different pelleted feed were offered in diverse combinations. Water was provided either by open dish or nipple drinker. Water was accessible ad libitum except for four treatments with 6 h or 12 h water access. Under the different feeding regimes, the drinker had no influence on water intake, but faecal dry matter content was significantly higher with nipple drinkers [60.0 ± 2.1 vs. 57.2 ± 2.1% of wet weight (mean ± 95% confidence interval), p = 0.003]. Dry food led to a higher drinking water intake but total water intake was still lower than with addition of 'fresh' food. With restricted water access, rabbits exhibited a significantly higher water intake with open dishes compared with nipple drinkers (54.9 ± 9.8 vs. 48.1 ± 8.2 g/kg(0.75) /day (mean ± 95% confidence interval), p = 0.04). High proportions of fresh parsley or hay in the diet enhanced total water intake and urine output, and led to lower urinary dry matter content and lower urinary calcium concentrations. Restricted access to drinkers led to a decreased total daily water intake and increased dry matter content of urine and faeces. For optimal water provision and urolith prophylaxis, we recommend a diet with a high 'fresh food' proportion as well as additionally hay ad libitum with free water access, offered in an open bowl.     

Impacts of naturally acquired protozoa and strongylid nematode infections on growth and faecal attributes in lambs

On two separate sampling occasions, faecal samples were collected from lambs (2-5 months of age) grazing pasture on two separate sheep farms in southern Western Australia. Live weight, body condition score (BCS), faecal consistency score (FCS) and faecal dry matter percentage (DM%) were measured. Faecal samples were screened by PCR for Cryptosporidium (18S rRNA, actin and 60 kDa glycoprotein [gp60] loci), Giardia duodenalis (glutamate dehydrogenase [gdh] and β-giardin) and patent strongylid nematode infections (ITS-2 nuclear ribosomal DNA for Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp. Chabertia ovina and Oesophagostomum spp.). Faecal worm egg counts (WECs) were performed using a modified McMaster WEC technique. The WECs were adjusted for FCS and transformed using log(10)(adjusted WEC+25) prior to statistical analyses. Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Trichostrongylus spp. detected by PCR were associated with an increased risk of non-pelleted faeces (FCS ≥ 3.0) for both flocks. Cryptosporidium-positive lambs were 2.8-11.6 times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces and Giardia-positive lambs were 2.4-14.0 times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces compared to lambs negative for each respective parasite. Lambs positive for both Cryptosporidium and Giardia were 2.9-11.8 times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces than lambs positive for only one or neither of these parasites. Mixed internal parasite infections were found to have greater impacts on FCS and BCS than single infections. A higher number of internal parasites detected per lamb was associated with lower BCS and more loose faeces. The relationship between parasite detection and live weight or growth rate were inconsistent for both flocks. Adjusted WEC was correlated with FCS and faecal DM% for one flock only, although little or no correlation was found with live weight and growth rate for both flocks. Cryptosporidium ubiquitum and Cryptosporidium parvum were the most prevalent Cryptosporidium species isolated in the two flocks. Giardia assemblage E was the most commonly isolated genotype assemblage from both flocks, while assemblage A was isolated almost as frequently as assemblage E in the one flock. One flock was a potential source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and the other flock was a potential source of zoonotic Giardia.     

The efficacy of two isolates of the nematode-trapping fungus Duddingtonia flagrans against Dictyocaulus viviparus larvae in faeces.

A series of experiments was carried out to examine the effects of two different isolates of the nematode-trapping fungus Duddingtonia flagrans to reduce the number of free-living larvae of the bovine lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus. A laboratory dose-titration assay showed that isolates CI3 and Troll A of D. flagrans significantly reduced (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) the number of infective D. viviparus larvae in cultures at dose-levels of 6250 and 12,500 chlamydospores/g of faeces. The larval reduction capacity was significantly higher for Troll A compared to CI3 when lungworm larvae were mixed in faecal cultures with eggs of Cooperia oncophora or Ostertagia ostertagi and treated with 6250 chlamydospores/g of faeces. Both fungal isolates showed a stronger effect on gastrointestinal larvae than on lungworm larvae. Two plot trials conducted in 1996 and 1997 involved deposition of artificial faecal pats containing free-living stages of D. viviparus and C. oncophora on grass plots. Herbage around the pats was collected at regular intervals and infective larvae recovered, counted and identified. These experiments showed that both D. flagrans isolates reduced the number of gastrointestinal as well as lungworm larvae in faecal pats. During both plot trials, the transmission of C. oncophora larvae, but not D. viviparus, from faecal pats to the surrounding herbage was clearly affected by climatic conditions. After collection of faecal pats from the grass plots one month after deposition, the wet and dry weight of pats as well as organic matter content were determined. No differences were found between the fungus-treated and non-treated control pats. This indicated that the rate of degradation of faeces was not affected by the addition of the fungus.     

The effect of oligofructose on urea metabolism and faecal odour components in cats

The effect on urea metabolism by the supplementation of oligofructose to a reduced protein diet was evaluated in cats by the use of labelled urea. The effect on faecal odour was also evaluated. Four cats were tested in a crossover study with two treatments: control and fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS). The FOS was supplemented at 3.11% on dry matter (DM) basis to a reduced protein diet (28.9% DM). After an adaptation period of 3 weeks, faeces and urine were collected during a 5-day collection period. Fresh faecal samples were collected for determination of odour components. On the first day of the collection period, labelled urea was injected subcutaneously. Urine production was estimated by potassium excretion. The fresh faecal samples were incubated in an air-closed recipient with two solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) fibres to bind the produced sulphur (S)-containing components. The reduced protein diet decreased plasma urea concentration but FOS supplementation had no effect. The tendency for a higher faecal output by FOS supplementation was the consequence of both an increased moisture content and faecal DM production. Supplementation of FOS showed tendencies to increase total faecal nitrogen (N) excretion and faecal (15)N excretion and tended to decrease urinary (15)N excretion. Twenty-seven different odour components were detected but were not affected by FOS supplementation.     

Possible interesting dietetic effects of lactulose as a feed additive in pig feed

In reared piglets (n = 10), fattening pigs (n = 20) and sows (n = 8) the effects of lactulose as feed additive on the quality and composition of chyme and faeces were tested to find out potential dietetic advantages of its use. The lactulose concentration in the diets varied between 27-29 g/kg dry matter in piglets and fattening pigs and 55-140 g/kg dry matter in the diet of sows. In piglets and fattening pigs the lactulose intake did not alter the dry matter content and pH in faeces; in spite of the higher concentration lactulose did not result in diarrhea in sows or adult minipigs, there was only a slight decrease in the dry matter content of faeces. In contrast to findings in human beings only traces of lactulose reached the hind gut, although higher lactulose concentrations were measured at the end of the small intestine (in piglets: 10-40 g, in fattening pigs 40-70 g lactulose per kg dry matter of chyme). The oral intake of lactulose did not increase the concentration of lactic acid or volatile fatty acids in the content of the small intestine and did not reduce the pH in the chyme, but in the contents of cecum and colon ascendens higher concentrations of volatile fatty acids were measured (in piglets: significantly higher values, in fattening pigs slightly increased concentrations). In piglets as well as in fattening pigs lactulose resulted in reduced concentrations of ammonia in the content of small and large intestine, further more the concentrations of lipopolysaccharides were increased in the colonal chyme, when pigs ingested the lactulose containing diet. Due to the fact that only small amounts of lactulose reached the hind gut there are doubts, whether lactulose has comparable dietetic effects in pigs as known from human beings (for example laxative effects, forced elimination of bacteria like salmonella). The results obtained here in pigs underline the necessity of experimental studies in the target species (including parameters of digestive physiology, chemical/microbial composition of the chyme) before substances are used and recommended for dietetic purposes in feeding practice. In spite of generally adopted similarity of the alimentary tract in pigs and human beings there are eventually some important differences within the intestine, its digestive capacity or in reactions on ingested substances leading to unexpected results.     

Comparison between dialysis methods and centrifugation/filtration for collecting fecal fluid from calves

Faecal samples of different consistency from 15 calves were subjected to two methods to separate faecal fluid. Osmolality as well as the concentrations of electrolytes and short chain fatty acids were determined for each of the fluid samples obtained and the results compared. For dialysis the following procedure was used: small dialysis bags filled with dextran 10% were placed in the cooled (4 degrees C) faecal sample to which gentamycin was added to inhibit fermentation. Equilibrium between dialysate and surrounding fluid was reached after 24 hours. However, depending on the consistency of the faeces, after 6 hours 90 to 95% of the final osmolality at 24 hours was reached. In regard to osmolality, sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations as well as to concentrations of short chain fatty acids no significant differences could be observed between the faecal fluid obtained by dialysis or by centrifugation (3500 g, 20 min, 4 degrees C) and subsequent filtration. Distinctly higher concentrations of calcium and inorganic phosphate were measured in the filtrates; the probable explanation is that these ions in faeces are largely present as poorly diffusible compounds (in particular with faeces of a more solid consistency) or bound to the cell membranes.