Failure analysis of a liquid natural gas (LNG) containment system – Bending failure of plywood component

Abstract

The main load-carrying component of the containment system of membrane gas carriers is made of plywood. One of the failure modes of the containment system due to violent liquid loading inside the tank is bending the plywood plate. A systematic study of the plywood bending failure is conducted by means of experiments and finite element (FE) methods. The objective is to propose an FE model that can replicate the nonlinear tests results of the plywood bending failure. The FE software ABAQUS has been utilized as a basis for this study. The material is modelled by linear elasticity combined with damage initiation using Hashin's theory. The brittle behaviour is indicated by linear softening. The softening is modelled by a fracture energy approach. The sensitivity study of the damage parameter on ultimate bending load is conducted. The numerical results from FE models are compared with the test results. A nonlinear material and FE model of plywood that could demonstrate the brittle failure is proposed.     

基于BP神经网络的天然云冷杉针阔混交林标准树高-胸径模型

[目的]以吉林省汪清林业局金沟岭林场12块天然云冷杉针阔混交林样地为对象,基于12 953对实测树高-胸径数据,结合林分优势高分树种(组)建立基于BP神经网络的标准树高模型。[方法]在确定隐层节点数后经过反复训练得到各树种(组)的适宜模型结构,使用相同的建模数据(8块样地)求解两个传统的树高方程,再利用未参与建模的4块样地分别验证模型。[结果]表明:落叶松、云杉的适宜模型结构(输入层节点数:隐藏层节点数:输出层节点数)为2:5:1;红松、中阔(白桦、大青杨、榆树和杂木)的适宜模型结构为2:4:1;冷杉的适宜模型结构为2:8:1;慢阔(色木、水曲柳、黄檗、紫椴和枫桦)的适宜模型结构为2:7:1。[结论]与传统方法相比,BP模型不依赖现存函数,不需要筛选模型形式,而且BP模型各树种R~2高于传统模型,平均绝对误差、均方根误差均小于传统模型,其拟合精度和预测效果均优于传统方程,可以有效地预测树高。     

Comparison of water absorption and mechanical properties of wood–plastic composites made from polypropylene and polylactic acid

Abstract

This study focuses on the water absorption and mechanical properties of composites made from softwood sawdust and plastics, such as virgin and recycled polypropylene and polylactic acid (PLA). The composites were processed by extrusion, and their properties were investigated by a water immersion test, mechanical tests and a cyclic test for moisture resistance. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the morphology of the fracture surfaces of the composites. The composites made with recycled polypropylene had the lowest water absorption and thickness swelling of the studied composites. The PLA composites made with heat-treated sawdust showed the highest flexural strength. Of the polypropylene based composites, virgin polypropylene resulted in composites with higher flexural strength. The Charpy impact strength of the composites was found to have an inverse trend compared to flexural strength. Cyclic treatment of the studied composites resulted in 20–60% loss of flexural strength, depending on type of composite.     

Predicting Log Type and Knot Size Category Using External Log Shape Data from a 3D Log Scanner

The use of new technology such as 3D scanners for measuring log shape at sawmills is increasing. These scanners can provide a detailed model of log shape and evenness of the log mantle area. These data can be used for optimizing yield but also for predicting quality of the sawn goods. This report presents a model for quality - related log features based on data from a 3D log scanner. The model includes routines for development of variables related to four categories of log properties: surface unevenness, log taper, cross - sectional out - of - roundness and straightness. In total, 230 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) logs are used for developing and validating logistic regression models for sorting logs into classes of log type and knot size. The models are tested on validation data: 97% of the logs were sorted correctly according to log type and 79% were sorted correctly according to knot size.     

Near-infrared spectroscopy for the quantification of linseed oil uptake in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)

Abstract

Eighteen sapwood and 18 heartwood samples from three Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees were used to identify correlations between the features of their near-infrared spectra (400–2500 nm) measured before and after impregnation with linseed oil (Linogard^®) and (1) the amount of oil taken up by the samples at three different longitudinal positions; and (2) the tissue type of sample. Calibration models were cross-validated and oil uptake models were also validated on separate test sets. Partial least squares regression models for the prediction of uptake and tissue type in non-impregnated wood were promisingly accurate, having coefficients of multiple determination (Q ²) values of > 0.8, 0.8 and 0.75 for predictions of tissue type, oil taken up as a percentage of sample mass and total mass of oil taken up, respectively. The models developed for linseed oil-impregnated samples were better still, generating Q ² values of > 0.9, > 0.8 and 0.8 for the three key properties. In general, models based on spectra acquired along two directions of measurement (longitudinal and tangential) were more accurate than models based on only one. Tandem models consisting of two submodels, one for sapwood and one for heartwood, were more successful than single models applicable to both tissue types.     

基于UAV高分影像的杨树冠幅提取及相关性研究

[目的]以无人机高清影像为数据源,结合样地实地调查数据,研究杨树冠幅提取及其与胸径和林分蓄积量的相关性,为无人机森林调查技术提供一种思路和方法。[方法]基于无人机高分影像及实地调查数据,采用面向对象法,对杨树林木冠幅进行分割与提取,通过实地测量数据建立冠幅-胸径模型,利用一元材积表计算样地蓄积量,并进行相关性分析与精度检验。[结果]影像分割效果良好,但提取得到的冠幅比实际值偏小,研究区最适宜的杨树冠幅分割尺度为10,平滑度0.1,紧致度0.5。杨树冠幅与胸径建立相关模型,其中一元线性方程拟合效果最好,相关系数为0.75。通过模型计算的样地蓄积与实测样地蓄积进行双侧T检验,结果 sig=0.0580.05,两组数据差异不显著。[结论]采用面向对象法,通过无人机高分影像能自动分割并提取了杨树林木冠幅信息,提取效果良好;利用影像提取林木平均冠幅,通过冠幅-胸径相关关系模型得到林木胸径,进而推算林分蓄积的方法可以满足森林资源调查精度要求。     

基于水青树叶表型性状的核心种质资源库构建策略

[目的]为了更好地构建水青树核心种质资源库,本文以161个水青树种质为试材,利用叶表型性状的遗传变异数据,对其构建方法进行了探索。[方法]首先,采用欧氏距离和瓦尔德法对所有个体进行逐步聚类;然后,设定10个取样比例(10%、15%、20%、25%、30%、35%、40%、45%、50%、55%),分别用随机取样策略、偏离度取样策略和位点优先取样策略筛选出与之对应的核心种质资源库。将这3种不同取样策略构建的核心种质资源库进行比较,从而筛选出最适种质资源。[结果](1)三种取样策略中,位点优先取样法明显提高了其种质资源库的方差差异百分率(VD)、变异系数变化率(VR)和极差符合率(CR),且45%是最适合构建水青树核心种质资源库的比例;(2)对种质资源核心库不同数量性状进行t检验,其累计贡献率达到82%以上。[结论]在欧氏距离结合瓦尔德法聚类条件下,位点优先取样策略是构建水青树种质资源核心库的最佳方法。     

内蒙古柠条和山杏单株生物量模型研建

[目的] 针对现有灌木生物量模型存在的分量与总量、地上与地下生物量不相容等问题, 探索利用联立方程组 方法, 建立灌木林相容性生物量模型。[方法] 以内蒙古自治区的2种常见灌木柠条(Caragana korshinskii)和山杏(Armeniaca sibirica)为研究对象, 基于大样本的生物量实测数据, 利用非线性误差变量联立方程组方法, 建立了地上生物量模型及其相容的地下生物量模型和根茎比模型。[结果] 表明:基于植冠面积和丛生枝个数(或植株高度)的地上生物量模型, 其确定系数能达到0.67以上, 但地下生物量模型的确定系数要低些, 其中山杏仅0.36;2种灌木的地上生物量和地下生物量模型的平均预估精度均能达到80%以上, 全株生物量的平均预估精度, 山杏能达到86%以上, 柠条能达到92%以上。[结论] 对于无明显主干的丛生状灌木, 不论是地上生物量还是地下生物量, 植冠面积是首要的相关因子, 其次才是丛生枝个数和植株高度;利用非线性误差变量联立方程组方法, 能有效解决不同生物量之间的相容性问题, 同步建立地上生物量模型及其相容的地下生物量模型和根茎比模型;所建模型完全可用于内蒙古自治区范围内相应灌木林的生物量估计。     

大兴安岭不同区域落叶松相容性材积方程及异方差研究

[目的]对不同区域立木相容性材积方程以及不同异方差校正方法进行详细对比分析,建立相容性材积方程预估大兴安岭不同区域落叶松的立木材积。[方法]以大兴安岭3个不同区域的落叶松为研究对象,采用误差变量联立方程组的方法构建不同区域立木相容性材积方程。采用非线性额外平方和的方法(F检验)进行区域性检验。使用多种权函数分别对3个区域存在异方差的材积方程进行加权回归。[结果]表明:任何2个区域的立木材积方程都有显著不同(P0.000 1),区域1和区域3的材积相差较大,区域2与区域1和区域3的材积相差较小。不同区域立木材积方程的错误应用会导致较大的预测误差。在参数稳定性和评价指标方面,加权估计会优于普通最小二乘估计。基于平均相对误差(MRE)和总相对误差(TRE),区域1(-0.11、0.97)、区域2(0.04、0.08)和区域3(1.04、0.93)的最优权函数分别为1/F(x)、1/D4.99、1/D3.38。[结论]立木材积方程是森林调查和林分生长与收获模型的主要组成部分,本文所构建3个区域的相容联立方程组模型预测误差均不超过±3%。建立相容性立木材积方程时应考虑其异方差的影响。最优权函数没有统一的形式。为尽可能得到稳定的参数估计,在加权回归估计过程中应选用多种权函数进行对比分析。     

基于不同立地质量的杉木生物量遥感估测

[目的]研究不同立地质量对杉木生物量遥感估测精度的影响,为进一步提高和完善森林生物量遥感监测体系提供一种新的思路和方法。[方法]以2007年建德市森林资源二类调查数据和TM影像为研究材料,采用蓄积量—生物量换算因子连续函数法计算杉木林生物量和地位级法评价立地质量等级,比较杉木立地质量好、中等、差和不分地位等级4种生物量遥感估测模型,并进行精度检验。[结果]表明:(1)以TM遥感影像主成分分析中第一主成分为自变量的模型拟合效果最好,决定系数R2均在0.69以上,最高0.855。(2)利用预留独立样本对模型精度进行验证,不分地位级总体估测精度为87.78%,分立地质量等级好、中、差3种类型总体估测精度分别为97.37%、95.82%、98.23%。分不同立地质量类型可以提高杉木生物量遥感估测精度。[结论]研究结果为森林生物量遥感估测提供一种改进的思路,且为提高森林生物量和碳储量遥感估测精度提供一种参考方法。     

Predicting knottiness of Pinus sylvestris for use in tree bucking procedures

Abstract

The quality and accompanying value of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) lumber varies markedly in the Nordic countries. Consequently, tree bucking has a great impact on the economic result. The objectives of this study were (1) to analyse which knot characteristics usually reduce pine lumber sawn from the butt-logs to the next quality grade, (2) to determine the most appropriate characteristics that could be used in predicting lumber quality, and (3) to develop models that could be used in practice for predicting the probability of certain quality grades. The study was based on field experiments and test sawing data on 100 Scots pine stems from south-western Finland. Since the results showed that the maximum dead knot is the most crucial knot characteristic when the first cross-cutting point is determined, models were created that predict the height of the first dead knot that lowers grade A to B (B-grade dead knot). Both early growth rate and dead branch height should be measured to predict pine butt-log quality. Early growth rate seems to be appropriate in predicting between-stand variation, while dead branch height is appropriate for predicting within-stand variation.     

基于树高和树冠因子的立木材积模型研究

[目的]由于激光雷达技术已经能准确测定立木树高及相关树冠因子,应用该技术建立基于树高和树冠因子的立木材积模型,为激光技术在森林蓄积估计中提供技术支撑.[方法]利用云杉、冷杉、栎树、桦树4个树种组的3 010株实测样木数据,分析了立木材积与胸径、树高、树冠因子之间的相关关系;并通过对数回归方法构建了基于树高和树冠因子的立木材积模型,用确定系数R²和平均预估误差MPE等6项指标对模型进行评价.[结果]表明,立木材积与单一因子之间的相关,以胸径最为紧密,其次是树高,再次是冠长和冠幅.基于树高和树冠因子的立木材积模型中,以树高和冠幅作为解释变量的二元模型效果较好,再增加冠长因子的三元模型改进不大.云杉、冷杉、栎树、桦树4个树种组基于树高冠幅的立木材积模型,其R²分别为0.81、0.80、0.76和0.77,MPE分别为4.7%、5.3%、5.4%和5.3%,模型预估精度均能达到95%左右.[结论]本文对材积与林木因子之间相关关系的定量分析,建立了云杉、冷杉、栎树、桦树4个树种的立木材积模型,模型预估精度高.为激光雷达技术定量估测森林参数提供了依据.     

The k-nearest neighbor technique with local linear regression

In a standard k-nearest neighbor (kNN) technique, imputations of unit-level values in the variables of interest (Y) are based on the k-nearest neighbors in a set of reference units. Nearest is defined with respect to a distance metric in the space of auxiliary variables (X). This study evaluates kNN imputations of Y with a selection, by the same distance metric, of k-nearest locally weighted regression models. Imputations are obtained as predictions using the X values of the k-nearest neighbors in the population. In simulated random sampling from three artificial multivariate populations and two actual univariate populations and sampling units composed of a single population element or a cluster of four elements, the new kNN technique: (1) improved the correlation between an imputation and its actual value; (2) lowered the root mean square error (RMSE) of imputations; (3) increased the slope in regressions of actual y values regressed against their imputed values; (4) performed relatively best with k values of 4 and sample sizes of 200 or greater; (5) compared favorably with a recently proposed kNN calibration procedure; and (6) had a higher (15–28%) RMSE than with a simple local linear regression. Distribution matching had a consistent negative effect (+10%) on RMSE.     

Durability,reaction to fire properties,and environmental impact of treated and untreated wooden claddings

Abstract

This work summarizes the output of durability, reaction to fire properties, and environmental impact of wooden claddings subjected to treatments modified with TiO₂ and clay nanoparticles. The objective was to investigate the effects of 1 wt% of TiO₂ and clay nanoparticles in existing water-based and stain coatings and preservatives regarding the properties mentioned above. Water vapor resistance properties were used to assess the moisture transfer properties of the specimens by using the cup test. The reactions to fire properties of the specimens were analyzed using small-scale cone calorimeter test. Accelerated aging was used to study the weathering properties of specimens, where the performance of the specimens with aging was characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. The effect of increasing the percentage of nanoparticles from 1 wt% to 3 wt% on the weathering properties of the specimens was further analyzed. Moreover, comparison between the overall environmental impact between unmodified water-based paint and water-based paint modified with 1 wt% of TiO₂ nanoparticles was performed using available environmental data and weathering test results as analyzed by FTIR.     

Empirical Analysis of the Input-Output Efficiency of Forestry S&T Innovation in China

ABSTRACT

Forestry-listed companies are important subjects of scientific and technological innovation, which play important roles in the sustainable development of forestry economy. This study used quantile regression model and least square model to analyze the input-output efficiency for scientific and technological innovation of forestry-listed companies from 2012 to 2015 in China. Regression results showed that there was no significant correlation among the variables at 0.05 level, according to the results of least square regression. And, the results of quantile regression analysis showed that under different quantiles, independent variables had a significant impact on dependent variables. This is an irrational but objective reality. Ordinary least square regression (OLSR) has some drawbacks so that quantile regression is applied, which shows a more scientific conclusion. Results indicated that: some forestry-listed companies have weak consciousness of scientific and technological innovation and lack of investment, and utility models and designs patents account for most patent applications and licensing. Also, input-output efficiency of scientific and technological innovation has not reached optimized value. To improve input-output efficiency of scientific and technological innovation, in combination with the relevant conclusions of this study, some practical and feasible measures were proposed.     

Localizing general models with classification and regression trees

Abstract

Typically, in forest inventory the volume of tally trees is predicted with a volume model estimated at national level. Such a global model is not unbiased regionally if there is spatial variation in the tree form due to one or more unknown predictors. This regional bias could be reduced or removed if the models were localized to each region or subarea. The localization is easiest if the area can be divided into homogeneous areas with respect to stem form. This study tested whether the localization results depend on the way the division is made and on the size of the subareas. The study area was divided spatially into homogeneous subareas with residuals of the global model or with the local spatial index, G _i *, or both with classification and regression trees, the leaves of which formed the subareas. In addition, two other spatial divisions were created: an administrative forest centre and spatially equal-sized subarea divisions. The localized models were compared with the global model. The root mean squared errors (RMSEs) of localized models were smaller in median and in mean, but maximum values exceeded the overall global model RMSE. The localization reduced local RMSEs on average by 1–6%. The differences between the spatial divisions were small, although the aggregate standard errors and RMSEs were slightly smaller in regression trees. Only 50 ± 8% of the subareas were spatially homogeneous in regression tree divisions, which suggests that either the division criteria or the division method were inadequate.     

Effect of Cuttings on the Scenic Beauty of a Tree Stand

The opinions of 207 respondents on the visual effects of seven different cutting types were asked using a nine-point verbal scale ranging from ''worsens very much'' to ''improves very much''. Other estimates were obtained by letting the same respondents evaluate photographs of stands which had been treated with different cuttings. The direct questions gave results quite similar to the evaluations of photographs for all but young respondents, indicating that most respondents were able to imagine the effect of the treatment correctly. The results based on the evaluation of photographs indicated that the effect of regenerative cuttings is negative while the impact of thinnings is positive. After a few years of cutting the stand is already regarded as clearly more pleasant than immediately after the cutting. Natural regeneration with seed trees seems to be a way to avoid the very negative immediate impact of clear-felling, especially in the case of Scots pine. Women, young, urban people and those who do not own forest or have work related to forests tended to experience thinnings less positively and saw regenerative cuttings as more harmful than the other test groups did.     

基于GF-1和TM数据的金河林业局天然林保护成效评估研究

[目的]利用遥感影像的特点,将地表覆盖类型和植被覆盖度作为天然林保护成效评估的研究指标,提出一种评估天然林保护成效的方法。[方法]首先,分析GF-1遥感影像特点,结合TM影像特点,研究针对GF-1遥感影像的处理和分析技术;其次,选择评估天然林保护成效评估的指标;再次,选取内蒙古金河林业局作为试验区,对试验区的地表覆盖类型变化、植被覆盖度变化进行分析,结合现地调查数据进行验证,从而评估天然林保护成效。[结果]基于采用分类后比较法能够有效检测出地表覆盖类型变化,经验证检测精度能够达到90%以上;归一化植被指数结合像元二分模型能够用于复杂地表植被覆盖度的反演,经野外实测数据验证精度可达到83%。[结论]根据地表覆盖类型变化监测和植被覆盖度变化监测结果,金河林业局天然林保护工程实施以来实现了森林资源由过度消耗向恢复性增长转变。     

基于国家森林资源清查数据的不同生物量和碳储量估计方法的对比分析

[目的]通过对不同生物量和碳储量的估计方法进行对比分析,为确定在国家森林资源清查中生物量和碳储量的具体估计方法提供依据。[方法]以广东省2012年森林资源清查的100个杉木林和80个马尾松林的实测样地资料为基础,利用近年来我国建立的主要树种立木生物量模型,对改进IPCC法、生物量模型法和转换因子连续函数法(即方精云法)3种方法按一元和二元模型共6种方案进行了对比;同时,基于改进IPCC法一元和二元模型的生物量估计值,用平均含碳系数法、组分含碳系数法和固定含碳系数(0.5或0.47)法分别对碳储量进行估计。[结果]用二元生物量模型法得到的杉木林和马尾松林样地的总生物量分别为320 Mg和331 Mg,一元生物量模型法的结果分别相差0.9%和6.2%;改进IPCC法的估计结果,采用二元和一元模型时杉木林分别相差-3.6%和-11.9%,马尾松林分别相差-8.5%和-19.6%;而方精云法的估计结果,采用二元和一元模型时杉木林分别相差6.65倍和6.60倍,马尾松林分别相差-14.3%和-18.0%。平均含碳系数法和组分含碳系数法的碳储量估计结果,杉木林仅相差0.2%,马尾松林相差约0.4%;固定含碳系数法的估计结果因树种而异,对杉木林要低估0.6%5.4%,对马尾松林要低估3.3%9.1%。[结论]对生物量的估计,采用生物量模型法准确性最高,而林木水平的生物量模型其预估精度要高于林分水平的模型;IPCC法是基于材积源的通用方法,将其中的缺省参数改进为可变参数模型,可大大提高方法的适应性;方精云法只是基于IPCC法所建立的林分水平模型在大尺度上的一种具体应用方法,其精度要低于林木水平的生物量模型法,不适于中小尺度应用。对碳储量的估计,采用平均含碳系数法与组分含碳系数法差异很小,但采用固定含碳系数法则误差较大。     

Evaluation of wood cutting forces in dry and wet conditions by small-scale chipping tests applying different analysis methods

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to study the effect of high moisture content in comparison to dry timber on the resulting cutting forces based on experimental small-scale chipping tests. Therefore, a wood chipper for single cuts is designed and different species of Austrian locally growing trees are utilized. The test specimens are investigated in almost dry and soaked wet conditions. The resistance of wood is measured utilizing a force sensor and the signal during the cutting process is subsequently analysed by two different methods. The results reveal that the mean value of the acting force during cutting is 38–81% minor compared to the maximum force. Even though the peak of the dynamically acting load is measured for just a comparably small time range, it reveals an impact on the fatigue behaviour of the tool as well as the tool supporting material. Hence, an approach of evaluated load spectra is applied to include the load distribution of the chipping process. The effect of dry and wet wood on the cutting resistance is examined, whereby wood exhibiting a high moisture content of 30–40% changes the acting load up to 98%, depending on the method of analysis.