Control of crop diseases through Integrated Crop Management to deliver climate-smart farming systems for low- and high-input crop production

Crop diseases affect crop yield and quality and cause significant losses of total food production worldwide. With the ever-increasing world population and decreasing land and water resources, there is a need not only to produce more food but also to reduce agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to mitigate climate change and avoid land use change and biodiversity loss. Thus, alternative climate-smart farming systems need to adapt to produce more food per hectare in a more sustainable way than conventional high-input farming systems. In addition to breeding new high-yielding cultivars adapted to future climates, there is a need to deploy Integrated Crop Management (ICM) strategies, relying less on synthetic inputs for fertilization and crop protection and less on fossil fuel-powered machinery to decrease yield losses due to pest and pathogens and guarantee food security. In this review, we compare some low-input farming systems to conventional agricultural systems with a focus on ICM solutions being developed to reduce synthetic inputs; these include crop genetic resistance to pathogens, intercropping, canopy architecture manipulation, and crop rotation. These techniques have potential to decrease crop disease frequency and severity by decreasing amounts and dispersal of pathogen inoculum and by producing microclimates that are less favourable for pathogen development, while decreasing GHG emissions and improving environmental sustainability. More research is needed to determine the best deployment of these ICM strategies in various cropping systems to maximize yield, crop protection, and other ecosystem services to address trade-offs between climate change and food security.     

Effects of disease control by fungicides on greenhouse gas emissions by UK arable crop production

BACKGROUND: The UK government has published plans to reduce UK agriculture's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. At the same time, the goal of global food security requires an increase in arable crop yields. Foliar disease control measures such as fungicides have an important role in meeting both objectives. RESULTS: It is estimated that UK winter barley production is associated with GHG emissions of 2770 kg CO₂ eq. ha^?1 of crop and 355 kg CO₂ eq. t^?1 of grain. Foliar disease control by fungicides is associated with decreases in GHG emissions of 42–60 kg CO₂ eq. t^?1 in UK winter barley and 29–39 kg CO₂ eq. t^?1 in UK spring barley. The sensitivity of these results to the impact of disease control on yield and to variant GHG emissions assumptions is presented. Fungicide treatment of the major UK arable crops is estimated to have directly decreased UK GHG emissions by over 1.5 Mt CO₂ eq. in 2009. CONCLUSION: Crop disease control measures such as fungicide treatment reduce the GHG emissions associated with producing a tonne of grain. As national demand for food increases, greater yields as a result of disease control also decrease the need to convert land from non‐arable to arable use, which further mitigates GHG emissions. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

农田土壤有机碳的影响因素及其研究

大气温室效应气体N2O、CO2增多与全球气温变暖有着密切的关系,由于农业活动导致的碳排放量占碳总排放量的25%,因此研究农田土壤有机碳的影响因素,对增加农田碳素固定和保持,减少由于不合理的土地使用而导致大量CO2的排放,维持农业和生物圈生态系统的可持续发展有着重要意义。本文分析了温度、水分、土地开垦、休闲和撩荒、耕翻、轮作、秸秆还田、肥料管理等对土壤有机碳的影响。减少翻耕次数,增加秸秆还田,优化氮、磷、钾等养分用量及配比,是提高农田,尤其是旱地农田土壤有机碳含量,培肥、改良土壤的重要途径。     

Quantifying the effects of fungicides and disease resistance on greenhouse gas emissions associated with wheat production

A method is presented to quantify the net effect of disease management on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per hectare of crop and per tonne of crop produce (grain, animal feed, flour or bioethanol). Calculations were based on experimental and survey data representative of UK wheat production during the period 2004–06. Elite wheat cultivars, with contrasting yields and levels of disease resistance, were compared. Across cultivars, fungicides increased yields by an average of 1·78 t ha^?1 and GHG emissions were reduced from 386 to 327 kg CO₂ eq. t^?1 grain. The amount by which fungicides increased yield – and hence reduced emissions per tonne – was negatively correlated with cultivar resistance to septoria leaf blotch (Mycosphaerella graminicola, anamorph Septoria tritici). GHG emissions of treated cultivars were always less than those of untreated cultivars. Without fungicide use, an additional 0·93 Mt CO₂ eq. would be emitted to maintain annual UK grain production at 15 Mt, if the additional land required for wheat production displaced other UK arable crops/set aside. The GHG cost would be much greater if grassland or natural vegetation were displaced. These additional emissions would be reduced substantially if cultivars had more effective septoria leaf blotch resistance. The GHGs associated with UK fungicide use were calculated to be 0·06 Mt CO₂ eq. per annum. It was estimated that if it were possible to eliminate diseases completely by increasing disease resistance without any yield penalty and/or developing better fungicides, emissions could theoretically be reduced further to 313 kg CO₂ eq. t^?1 grain.     

Impacts of chemical crop protection applications on related CO2 emissions and CO2 assimilation of crops

BACKGROUND: A major global challenge is to provide agricultural production systems that are able to sustain growing demands for food, feed, fibre and renewable raw materials without exacerbating climate change. Detailed and reliable data on the CO₂ balance of different agricultural management activities and inputs as a basis to quantify carbon footprints of agriculture are still lacking. This study aims to fill this gap further by quantifying the net balance of emitted and assimilated CO₂ due to the application of crop protection treatments on the farm, and by assessing their partial contribution to GHG emissions and mitigation in agriculture. The study focuses on key agricultural crops including wheat, corn, oilseeds and sugar crops. RESULTS: The final CO₂ balance, considering GHG emissions due to on‐farm CPP treatment in comparison with CO₂ storage in additional biomass, CO₂ protected with respect to agrotechnical inputs and land inputs and CO₂ saved with respect to associated global land use changes, is positive and may reach multiples of up to nearly 2000. CONCLUSION: The results highlight the importance of the positive yield effects of the CPP programme applications on the farm, resulting in additional assimilated biomass at the farm level and less land use changes at the global level, and thus lower pressure on environmentally important indicators of overall agricultural sustainability. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

陕西省粮食安全区域差异及驱动因素分析

随着农业的基础地位在经济化和城市化的浪潮中逐渐削弱,粮食安全重新成为世人关注的焦点。本文以陕西省的11个地区为例,借助于SPSS统计软件,采用主成分分析法分析陕西省粮食安全水平的区域差异,表明粮食播种面积、耕地面积和粮食生产的科技投入对粮食安全的影响最大,人口与其他农业产业也对粮食安全产生一定影响。渭南市、咸阳市和西安市的粮食安全综合得分最高,分别为12.903、11.513、8.693,粮食安全水平较高;粮食安全综合得分较低的三个地区是杨凌示范区、铜川市和商洛市,粮食安全水平较低。     

Quantifying the effect of interactions between disease control,nitrogen supply and land use change on the greenhouse gas emissions associated with wheat production

A method for calculating the effect of disease control on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with wheat production, reported previously, was developed further to account for effects of disease control on the amount of fertilizer nitrogen (N) which should be applied and on changes in land use. Data from nine randomized and replicated field experiments from the UK and Denmark showed that the economic optimum N input to winter wheat was greater if diseases were controlled by fungicides, than for untreated wheat. The GHGs associated with this additional N largely negated the benefit to emissions per tonne of grain resulting from disease control. However, the mean grain yield obtained without fungicide treatment was 6·71 t ha^?1, compared to 8·88 t ha^?1 with fungicide treatment, if N input was optimal for each situation. In the absence of disease control by fungicides, and assuming that the optimum N rate was used, an additional 481 kha of wheat would be required to maintain UK wheat production at the current level. If the additional land area came from converting temperate grassland to arable production, the GHG emissions caused by ploughing grassland would cause emissions to rise from 503 to 713 kg CO₂e per tonne of grain produced. This would result in an additional 3·15 Mt CO₂e per year to produce the typical UK annual production of 15 Mt. This analysis reinforces the importance of winning the ‘arms race’ against pathogen evolution towards fungicide insensitivity and virulence.     

Biofilter:a promising tool for mitigating methane emission from manure storage

Liquid manure storage may contribute to methane(CH4) emission and this emission can be greatly reduced if appropriate management practices are applied. Biofiltration has been used in other fields for mitigating greenhouse gas(GHG) emission(e.g.,landfill) and shown promise for mitigation CH4 emission from liquid manure storage. It has been reported that biofilter was capable of reducing 80% of CH4 emissions from manure storage. The CH4 removal efficiency is influenced by many factors,including CH4 and O2 concentrations,temperature,moisture,composition of the filter bed,nutrient,and empty bed residency time(EBRT) . Biological conversion of methane of a biofilter is a slow process due to the low water solubility of methane. The residence times(EBRT) between 5 min and 5 h have been used,whereas a typical EBRT of 25 s is used for common biofilter applications. Temperature at which methanotrophic bacteria are active ranges from 10oC to 45oC. The maximum activity is found at around 30oC. The optimal filter bed water content depends on both the gas flow rate and the type of filter bed(soil,compost,etc.) and ranges from 30%-70% of the water holding capacity. Compost is the best material for filter bed. The optimal pH for methanotrophic bacteria is neutral to slightly acidic. Copper and nitrogen compounds especially nitrate are important nutrients to methanotrophic bacteria but their optimal concentrations have not been founded. Phosphorus and other elements such as potassium and manganese are reported to affect the performance of methanotrophic bacteria but need further confirmation.     

Weed suppression by cover crops: comparative on‐farm experiments under integrated and organic conservation tillage

Cover crops are increasingly being used for weed suppression and to enhance the sustainability of agro‐ecosystems. However, the suitability of cover crops for weed suppression in integrated and organic conservation tillage systems is still poorly investigated. Therefore, a 2‐year field study at eight sites was conducted to test the weed suppressive potential of six legume‐based cover crops, with the aim to reduce herbicide input or mechanical weed management interventions. In all experiments, cover crops were directly sown after cereals before next year's main crop (grain maize or sunflower). The presence of cover crops caused a 96% to 100% reduction of weed dry matter at the four sites managed under integrated production, while effects were lower at the four sited managed under organic production, ranging from 19% to 87%. Cover crops that covered soil quickly and which produced much dry matter had the best weed suppressive potential. However, their weed suppressing effect was difficult to predict, as it depended on the year of the investigation, experimental site, cover crop species, the speed of soil cover in autumn and the density of the resulting mulch layer in spring. The study demonstrated that cover crops are a useful tool to suppress weeds under integrated and organic conservation tillage practices. Our recommendation for supporting weed management in conservation tillage systems is to use locally adapted cover crops that have rapid establishment, good soil coverage and high dry matter production. However, additional weed management measures are required for reliable weed control under on‐farm conditions.     

The increasing importance of herbicides in worldwide crop production

Herbicide use is increasingly being adopted around the world. Many developing countries (India, China, Bangladesh) are facing shortages of workers to hand weed fields as millions of people move from rural to urban areas. In these countries, herbicides are far cheaper and more readily available than labor for hand weeding. History shows that in industrializing countries in the past, including the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea, the same phenomenon has occurred—as workers have left agriculture, herbicides have been adopted. It is inevitable that herbicide use will increase in sub‐Saharan Africa, not only because millions of people are leaving rural areas, creating shortages of hand weeders, but also because of the need to increase crop yields. Hand weeding has never been a very efficient method of weed control—often performed too late and not frequently enough. Uncontrolled weeds have been a major cause of low crop yields in sub‐Saharan Africa for a long time. In many parts of the world, herbicides are being increasingly used to replace tillage in order to improve environmental conditions. In comparison with tillage, herbicide use reduces erosion, fuel use, greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient run‐off and conserves water. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

生态安全对防止耕地隐性流失和保证粮食安全的意义

从生态安全的角度探讨了我国的耕地流失和粮食安全问题。笔者认为,生态退耕和农业结构调整所引起的耕地面积减少不应简单地算入耕地流失之列。应从大农业的角度看待农用土地在不同利用方式下的合理转换。畜牧业等农业内部产业的用地固然会减少粮用耕地的面积,但会减轻畜牧业以及人类消费对粮食的需求。各种形式的生态劣变是耕地资源流失和耕地质量下降的主要原因。生态退耕应看作是对土地资源的一种保护措施和对耕地资源贮备形式。由于国民生活水平的提高和食物结构趋于多样化,口粮在食物构成中的比例趋于减少,简单以粮食占有量来评价国家粮食安全形势是不够全面的。从人体营养需求、国家粮食生产能力、消费趋势、国际市场潜力等方面分析了我国的粮食安全问题。由于人口增长缓慢,利农政策及价格对粮食生产的刺激,以及国际粮食生产和市场的巨大潜力,我国的粮食安全不存在大的问题。     

土地利用变化对农业旱灾影响研究进展与展望

土地利用是人类与自然联系的重要纽带,对自然灾害具有复杂影响。本文从土地利用的3个方面:土地利用格局、土地利用结构和土地利用水平梳理了土地系统与农业旱灾的关系,并总结了研究中常用的5种方法:空间叠加分析方法、统计分析方法、实验方法、作物模型方法和遥感方法的优缺点及实际应用;最后提出采用多尺度、多因子、多种方法相结合的综合定量分析方法是理解土地利用变化对农业旱灾复杂影响的有效手段,并展望提高土地利用数据精度,开发与完善区域作物模型以及整合区域社会经济指标,采用景观尺度上的情景建模,通过多目标的权衡与优化,从不同土地利用类型下的作物品种改良和利用作物模型及统计方法,从多尺度土地利用变化研究其农作物旱灾的关系,找到区域减灾与可持续发展并重的土地利用策略是未来研究的重点。     

陕西省粮食生产基地县粮食供需状况及其生产态势的调查研究

为了解陕西省粮食生产基地县粮食供需状况及其区域粮食安全,在2009年9月份对陕西省三个粮食生产基地县（富平县、武功县和凤翔县）1218户农户的粮食生产、流通、消费和储备等现状进行了现场问卷调查。结果表明：三县粮食自给率、人均粮食占有量、粮食储备量、耕地利用效率和农业技术等方面在陕西省均居于前列,并超过全国平均水平;调查...     

陕西省粮食安全定量评价研究

从粮食自给率、人均粮食占有量、粮食单产水平、人均耕地、粮食生产波动系数等方面构建粮食安全综合指数,采用粮食安全系数评价法,对陕西省11个地市1998~2007年的粮食安全状况进行定量评价。结果表明,在最近10年里陕西省粮食安全总体是安全的,但是各地市差异明显。由粮食安全综合评价值F的大小可以将陕西省粮食安全大致分为3类地区:关中地区的咸阳、渭南、宝鸡属于粮食安全区;铜川、榆林、安康属于粮食临界安全区;其他地区属于粮食基本安全区。影响陕西省粮食安全的主要因素是人口持续增长、土地资源短缺、粮食生产分布不平衡、粮食生产环境恶化等。认为应该从保护耕地、水利建设、商品粮基地建设、粮食储备以及粮食预警等方面保障陕西粮食安全。     

CO_2,CH_4 and N_2O flux changes in degraded grassland soil of Inner Mongolia,China

The main purpose of this study was to explore the dynamic changes of greenhouse gas(GHG)from grasslands under different degradation levels during the growing seasons of Inner Mongolia, China.Grassland degradation is associated with the dynamics of GHG fluxes, e.g., CO_2, CH_4 and N_2O fluxes. As one of the global ecological environmental problems, grassland degradation has changed the vegetation productivity as well as the accumulation and decomposition rates of soil organic matter and thus will influence the carbon and nitrogen cycles of ecosystems, which will affect the GHG fluxes between grassland ecosystems and the atmosphere. Therefore, it is necessary to explore how the exchanges of CO_2,CH_4 and N_2O fluxes between soil and atmosphere are influenced by the grassland degradation. We measured the fluxes of CO_2, CH_4 and N_2O in lightly degraded, moderately degraded and severely degraded grasslands in Inner Mongolia of China during the growing seasons from July to September in 2013 and 2014. The typical semi-arid grassland of Inner Mongolia plays a role as the source of atmospheric CO_2 and N_2O and the sink for CH_4. Compared with CO_2 fluxes, N_2O and CH_4 fluxes were relatively low. The exchange of CO_2, N_2O and CH_4 fluxes between the grassland soil and the atmosphere may exclusively depend on the net exchange rate of CO_2 in semi-arid grasslands. The greenhouse gases showed a clear seasonal pattern, with the CO_2 fluxes of –33.63–386.36 mg/(m·h), CH_4 uptake fluxes of 0.113–0.023 mg/(m·h) and N_2O fluxes of –1.68–19.90 μg/(m·h). Grassland degradation significantly influenced CH_4 uptake but had no significant influence on CO_2 and N_2O emissions. Soil moisture and temperature were positively correlated with CO_2 emissions but had no significant effect on N_2O fluxes.Soil moisture may be the primary driving factor for CH_4 uptake. The research results can be in help to better understand the impact of grassland degradation on the ecological environment.     

Removing constraints to sustainable food production: new ways to exploit secondary metabolism from companion planting and GM

The entire process of agricultural and horticultural food production is unsustainable as practiced by current highly intensive industrial systems. Energy consumption is particularly intensive for cultivation, and for fertilizer production and its incorporation into soil. Provision of nitrogen contributes a major source of the greenhouse gas, N₂O. All losses due to pests, diseases and weeds are of food for which the carbon footprint has already been committed and so crop protection becomes an even greater concern. The rapidly increasing global need for food and the aggravation of associated problems by the effects of climate change create a need for new and sustainable crop protection. The overall requirement for sustainability is to remove seasonal inputs, and consequently all crop protection will need to be delivered via the seed or other planting material. Although genetic modification (GM) has transformed the prospects of sustainable crop protection, considerably more development is essential for the realisation of the full potential of GM and thereby consumer acceptability. Secondary plant metabolism offers wider and perhaps more robust new crop protection via GM and can be accomplished without associated yield loss because of the low level of photosynthate diverted for plant defence by secondary metabolism. Toxic mechanisms can continue to be targeted but exploiting non‐toxic regulatory and signalling mechanisms should be the ultimate objective. There are many problems facing these proposals, both technical and social, and these are discussed but it is certainly not possible to stay where we are in terms of sustainability. The evidence for success is mounting and the technical opportunities from secondary plant metabolism are discussed here. © 2019 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Minimal soil disturbance combined with spring cropping can halt soil seedbank accumulation of Alopecurus myosuroides

The basic mechanism of soil inversion tillage for control of annual weeds is based on the vertical translocation of weed seeds from the soil surface to deeper soil layers. Buried weed seeds either remain dormant in the soil seedbank and are exposed to biological and chemical decay mechanisms, or they germinate but the seedlings cannot reach the soil surface (fatal germination). However, depending on the seed biology of the respective target species, frequent inversion tillage can lead to a build-up of the soil seedbank. For soil seedbank depletion based on available knowledge of the biology of Alopecurus myosuroides seeds, soil inversion tillage is suggested to be reduced to every third or fourth year with reduced or even no-tillage (direct seeding) in between (rotational inversion tillage systems). Including spring crops in the crop rotation could further help dampening the population growth and hence the seed return into the seedbank. This study investigated the effect of rotational inversion tillage in combination with reduced tillage or direct seeding on the soil seedbank and population development of A. myosuroides. In a long-term field trial, set up in 2012, these tillage strategies were compared with continuous inversion tillage in a 3-year crop rotation with two consecutive years of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) followed by spring barley (Hordeum vulgare). The results showed a significant decline in the soil seedbank following the spring crop, irrespective of the tillage system. The continuous inversion tillage system and inversion tillage before spring cropping with reduced tillage (shallow tillage with a disc harrow) before winter wheat both led to accumulation of seeds in the soil seedbank. In contrast, inversion tillage before spring cropping with direct seeding of winter wheat depleted the soil seedbank significantly after only one crop rotation. Although only covering one intensively studied field site, these findings highlight the need for diversified cropping systems and indicate potential avenues for reducing soil tillage while controlling economically important weeds.     

Effect of variety choice, resistant rootstocks and chitin soil amendments on soil-borne diseases in soil-based, protected tomato production systems

Soil-borne diseases are the most significant crop protection problem in soil-based, low-input and especially organic glasshouse production systems in Europe. While chemical soil disinfestation has been the control method of choice in conventional farming systems, soil steaming has been the main strategy for the control of soil-borne diseases in organic production. Both methods are extremely expensive and have been increasingly restricted for environmental reasons by governments, and integrated and organic farming standard-setting bodies. The use of disease-tolerant varieties, grafting onto resistant rootstocks and chitin soil amendments were evaluated as potential replacements for soil steaming in organic and other low-input tomato production systems. When only Pyrenochaeta lycopersici and/or Meloidogyne spp. were present in soil, grafting and/or chitin soil amendment were found to be as effective in reducing root disease and/or increasing yield as soil steaming, but the efficacy of both treatments was reduced when Verticillum albo-atrum was also present in soil. No additive effects of combining grafting and chitin soil amendments could be detected. A more widespread use of grafting and/or chitin soil amendments may therefore allow significant reductions in the use of steam and chemical soil disinfestation in glasshouse crops. It will also allow integrated and organic farming standard-setting bodies to impose further restrictions on the use of soil disinfestation treatments.     

1991—2010 年中国主要粮食作物生物灾害发生特征分析

生物灾害发生种类繁多和暴发频繁,是威胁我国粮食安全生产的重要因素。利用中国植物保护统计数据、粮食作物产量数据和农田土地覆盖类型分布遥感数据,重点分析中国1991年到2010年20年期间四类重要粮食作物病虫害发生面积和发生强度的变化趋势,以及其空间分布范围。结果表明：从1991年到2010年水稻、玉米和大豆病虫害发生面积均显著增加;水稻、小麦、玉米和大豆病虫害发生强度均显著增加。随着粮食作物病虫害发生面积增大,其发生强度均呈增加趋势。病害与虫害相比,无论是发生面积,还是发生强度,粮食作物的虫害均高于病害。粮食作物病虫害主要分布在我国中东部的粮食主产区,西部地区主要粮食作物病虫害发生相对较轻。为了有效地防止或减少病虫害等生物灾害对粮食生产安全的影响,目前应当加强农田景观变化和气候变化等对粮食农作物病虫害的影响诊断、发生与灾变的风险评估和监测预警,改善农田生态环境,开展区域性农田生态系统病虫害整合治理研究,并建立相应的对策。     

河西走廊绿洲农业土地综合利用探析——以张掖市为例

以河西走廊中部的张掖市为例,进行了土地人口承载力的计算和农业内部产业效益分析。结果表明:种植粮食作物的人口承载力要远远大于畜牧业,而从农业内部不同产业综合效益分析来看,草畜业要大于种植业。考虑到土地对人口的承载力,将未来绿洲农业土地的利用模式调整为:耕地种植业和耕地草畜业的用地比例为1∶2左右;耕地种植业中,稳定口粮生产,压缩饲料粮生产,提高饲草种植比例;畜牧业中,压缩耗粮型猪禽养殖数量,发展节粮型草畜(牛、羊)的数量,提高食草性畜牧业比重;调整种植业、养殖业和农畜产品加工业结构,建立绿洲生态经济体系,实现经济、社会、生态效益的兼容。