Role of non-wood forest products for local livelihoods in countries with transition and market economies: case studies in Ukraine and Sweden

Abstract

The role of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) in local economies differ in time and space. We analysed Ukrainian and Swedish national policies and management rules related to the use of NWFPs, and described how different forest stakeholders utilised NWFPs in rural areas in Ukraine and Sweden. In total we interviewed 114 local forest stakeholders in one rural region's settlements in both countries. The topics for the field study were (1) the reasons and amounts of NWFPs harvested by different forest user categories; (2) traditional practices of NWFP use, including harvesting methods and (3) how these practices have changed over the past decades. At the national level, both countries allowed the utilisation of most NWFPs, did not regulate the use, and did not include NWFPs into forest management plans. In both case studies, historical use of NWFPs was intensive. This use remained important in Ukraine, but not in Sweden. Due to difficult economic transition in Ukraine, use of NWFPs by locals has increased. While hunting as a tradition was more popular in the Swedish case study, recreational use of forest was popular in both case studies. Finally, we discuss the role of NWFPs in countries with transition and market economies, and the extent to which the countries support sustainable use of NWFPs.     

木质林产品贸易中碳流动的边境调节

近年来，碳关税成为国际贸易研究的热点问题之一，而目前有关碳关税的讨论多集中于能源密集型产业。木质林产品（HWP）同时作为碳源和能够长期储存碳的碳库，具有碳流动上的特殊性，其贸易也显著影响一国的碳库储量。文中梳理当前有关碳关税的国内外研究及争议焦点，分析碳关税如何在不同类型的HWP中得以调整和应用，并分析对HWP征收碳关税给征收国和被征收国带来的影响，指出HWP的国际贸易可能带来的碳泄露问题。结论认为，出口国可选择采取碳关税措施减少本国碳汇效应较好的HWP的出口，并将更多的碳储量留在国内，但这一做法可能抑制本国林产品的出口贸易。     

中国林业产业应对国际贸易壁垒的策略研究

随着林产品生产规模快速扩张和国际竞争力日益提高, 中国正面临着林产品贸易摩擦加剧的态势。欧美各国纷纷建立各种形式的贸易壁垒以限制中国林产品出口的增长, 中国林产品贸易环境面临严峻的挑战与压力。文中首先分析中国林业产业遭受贸易壁垒的现状及特点, 得出当前林产品贸易壁垒的格局主要有3个特点:传统贸易壁垒大量存在, 技术性贸易壁垒正在逐步增强, 绿色贸易壁垒已成为主流; 其次, 从正反2个方面理论分析贸易壁垒影响林产品贸易的作用机理; 再次, 以中日人造板贸易为例实证分析技术性贸易壁垒对林产品贸易影响的程度, 结果发现日本有关甲醛释放量标准的颁布意味着技术壁垒的加强, 对中国出口日本的人造板贸易额有显著的负面影响; 最后, 从政府、行业协会、企业3个层面提出中国林产品贸易应对贸易壁垒的战略措施, 以构建林产品贸易壁垒应对机制。     

Democratising timber: An assessment of Myanmar's emerging ‘Forest Law Enforcement,Governance and Trade’ (FLEGT) process

Amidst Myanmar (Burma)'s political reform process the forest sector remains an important area awaiting democratisation. Forests historically covered over 50% of the countries' land area, and have been of major importance for both local livelihoods, the national economy and ‘ecosystem services’ such as biodiversity and catchment hydrology. The export timber trade has however played a decisive role in determining forest sector policy and indeed has exerted a significant influence on overall national politics since the colonial era began and continuing to the present day. Under the post-independence military dictatorship the timber trade involved ever more unsustainable plunder, particularly from the 1970s, rapidly degrading forests. But now reform of Myanmar's timber trade is on the national political agenda, reform which will be crucial for the Nation's transition towards an equitable and sustainable development trajectory.New legislative measures within consuming countries, including the EU, to challenge illegally sourced timber and wood product supplies have begun to exert a catalytic influence on Myanmar's forest policies, and converging with domestic civil society pressures have led in 2013 to the initiation of a formal ‘Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade’ (or FLEGT) bilateral process between the European Union and the Government of Myanmar.This paper presents an analysis of the nature of Myanmar's current timber trade and of the challenges and opportunities for reform, particularly in relation to the emerging FLEGT process. We argue that there are eight key aspects of Myanmar's timber trade overdue for democratic reform, which the FLEGT process puts into sharp relief: 1) resolution of ethnic conflicts primarily in upland forested areas, 2) reform of forest tenures; 3) a review of overall forest sector policies and the appropriate place of timber production; 4) reform of military era state timber institutions, 5) a return to silviculturally based sustainable forest management; 6) restructuring of the timber industry away from ‘crony’ domination; 7) measures to combat illegal logging and assure the rule of law; and 8) citizen participation in policy development and implementation.This ‘shopping list’ of democratic reforms implies a major and undoubtedly difficult process ahead, and success is far from certain. From 2013 promising initial progress has already begun on several of these areas. However, although the Government of Myanmar may give the international audience the impression that it is rapidly democratising, on the ground only limited substantive changes are yet experienced in rural areas, and resistance to reform persists amongst the military and their commercial partners. A spectrum of possible outcomes for forest sector reform may be foreseen, from mere token improvements on the dictatorship-era ‘business as usual’ to a thorough realisation of democratic aspirations. The outcome will be determined by the balance of power between civil society, public representatives, timber merchants particularly the powerful so-called ‘crony’ and proxy military business interests, and the intermediating powers of Government (including a significant rent-seeking ‘shadow state’), the EU, and the international markets that drive the demand for Burmese timber. The extent to which the FLEGT process can reinforce the wider democratisation process may be a decisive factor.     

2005—2014年国际原木贸易格局的社会网络分析

采用社会网络分析方法,利用2005—2014年世界120个国家（地区）原木进出口贸易数据,对国际原木贸易网络的网络密度、中心性及核心节点等指标进行计算,对国际原木贸易网络核心—边缘结构进行分析。研究结果表明:国际原木贸易的发展受到世界经济形势和政府原木进出口政策的显著影响;大部分国家（地区）原木贸易伙伴少、贸易量小,只有少数贸易伙伴较多、贸易量大;美国一直是原木进出口贸易的核心国家,德国是后加入的核心国家,属于金砖国家的中国、印度发展迅速,中国在2011年跻身核心国家行列。     

控制外来入侵物种的贸易对策

目前我国在入侵物种及贸易对策方面的研究主要集中在外来入侵物种与国际贸易的相互关系等层面, 在结合经济模型对采用的贸易对策经济后果进行分析预测方面仍属空白。文中通过分析生物入侵及国际贸易相关文献, 在概括介绍国内外控制外来入侵物种的贸易对策研究进展的同时, 提出应该借鉴国外研究成果, 增加通过关税、补贴、禁令等贸易措施控制外来入侵物种的相关研究, 结合相关贸易模型预测分析这些贸易对策可能产生的经济后果, 并建立专业、实用的生物入侵数据库以满足模型的数据需求, 为政府选择控制生物入侵的政策提供决策参考和依据。     

中国主要木制品国际贸易现状和趋势

我国加入世界贸易组织后,大量木制品开始走出国门,一定程度上提高了我国木制品的世界影响力与竞争力,对塑造民族品牌起到了积极作用。从全球范围内来看,对于木制品的需求逐步上升,尤其是美国、日本、欧盟等国家和地区,这给我国木制品加工企业带来了前所未有的机遇。然而,我国木制品在走向世界的过程中,也遇到了相关困难及贸易壁垒,这些都需要国内木制品企业进行有效应对,以便更好地适应新形势下的国际木制品市场需求。简述了世界和我国木制品及贸易的基本情况,分析了我国木制品拓展国际市场面临的机遇和挑战,在此基础上,提出了新形势下我国木制品深化发展的基本策略。     

Forest future s by Swedish students – developing a mind mapping method for data collection

Forests are an important natural resource in Sweden. They are used for multiple purposes, for example, providing economic returns from timber harvest, conservation of biodiversity, provision of wild berries and mushrooms and recreational benefits. People’s perceptions of forests and forest use are currently under transformation due to drivers like globalization and urbanization. The aim of this study was to analyse in particular Swedish university student’s visions of future forests using a newly developed survey method based on mind mapping. An online survey with mind map technique was used to collect data from university students in Umeå, northern Sweden. The study focused on features of forests, products derived from forests and activities in forests. The results indicate that students regard ecological, social and economic aspects of forests as important for future forests and the use of them. In particular, the role of non-wood forest products, like berries and mushrooms, as well as recreational features of forests were central to many of the students. The multitude of different visions suggests that forest management decisions of today, directing the future of forests, need to consider the multiple use of forests to be able to satisfy forest preferences also of younger generations.     

中国林产品发展的现状与前景

从我国林产品的供需态势、技术方向和政策取向三个方面,介绍我国林产品的发展现状与前景,分析了中国林产品在世界林产品进出口贸易的内在潜力与资源优势.指出中国经济社会的持续快速稳定协调发展,为中国林产品的市场供需与贸易投资提供了广阔的发展空间与研发平台,带来了巨大的发展机遇.     

Trade in forest products between European Union and the Central and Eastern European access candidates

Patterns in forest products trade between European Union and Central and Eastern European access candidates were studied. The results indicated that both production and trade of forest products in Central and Eastern European countries in transition have considerably increased during the 1990s. The European Union has been the most important trading partner for CEE countries, even though the EU share from the external trade has been quite stable. The gravity models estimated explained approximately 66% of the variation in volume of bilateral trade flows in EU and CEE countries in 1997. Results indicated that trade between EU and CEE countries was below the level that would be expected on the basis of income and distance. A model separating the trade flows according to direction suggested that this is due to the low intensity of West–East trade, which probably originates in low levels of consumption of higher value-added products in CEE countries. East–West trade did not significantly differ from the average pattern.     

中国木质家具出口贸易影响因素分析

引力模型已被广泛应用于国际贸易研究领域, 用来衡量经济规模和距离对双边贸易流量和流向的影响。应用引力模型, 以2005—2006年中国主要的30个木质家具出口国为研究对象, 来分析经济规模、地理距离对中国木质家具出口的影响。在此基础上对各国的木质家具贸易潜力进行测算并与实际值比较, 从而提出促进中国木质家具出口的建议。     

野生动植物国际贸易管理进程与前瞻

目前,在国际范围和国家双边等层面上,野生动植物国际贸易管理主要采取国际公约和加强国家立法(执法)等措施。野生动植物国际贸易管理还存在发展不平衡、各国政策不一致、各类别贸易物种无区分、非法走私严重、危机物种增多等问题。随着《濒危野生动植物物种国际贸易公约》第13届缔约国大会的闭幕,出台了严格管制和便利贸易等新措施。     

森林生态效益的国际传播与国际协调

众多的环境问题均是跨越国界的全球性问题。任何一个国家或国家集团都不可能独自解决、需要国际成员的广泛参与合作。为此,本文探讨了越境生态问题的产生、由贸易产生的跨国外部性、以及由跨国投资引起的环境外部性等问题。提出了利用国际生态税收是一个有效率的方法,它可以促使生态破坏者去研究开发技术来消除污染以减轻税负。并指出在国际生态税的分配上应坚持“谁污染,谁补偿”的公正原则,以历史的、积累的和现实的温室气体排放量为标准来进行分配。为此为基础形成的“国际绿色基金”,应优先对发展中国家或贫困地区从事大面积人工造林和保护天然林所产生的生态效益给予补偿。其次,从贸易对环境的破坏影响来看,其产生的主要原因是贸易中并没有将自然资源利用,环境破坏等外在成本适当地反映在商品和服务的市场价格中,使环境使用不当,因此为保护贸易的自然资源基础,应该将环境成本的内在化列入贸易条款。另外,为确保国际生态税的有效实施,应采取高税率、窄税基的策略。高税率是为了确保环境治理的效率;窄税基是仅选择少数危害最大的污染种类,随条件成熟的程度再逐渐扩大征税范围。这样可使总税额在初期较低,而减少国际生态税实施的阻力。     

Improving the International Compatibility of Accountancy Data: The ��DACH-Initiative��

Germany (D), Austria (A) and Switzerland (CH) share a long tradition in monitoring the economic performance of forest enterprises by means of forest accountancy networks. The results generated by these networks are a valuable empirical basis for forestry sector statistics in these countries. In the context of international analyses it is common practice to compare results between countries directly, without addressing the issue of compatibility. However, severe biases and even misjudgements may result from such simplistic approaches. These networks have been developed as national solutions, and their results are neither grounded on common methodological standards nor on attuned definitions, so that their compatibility is not guaranteed. The rising interest in international comparisons indicates that existing accountancy networks may well serve additional purposes. At the same time the importance of compatibility, if not standardisation, is highlighted. The institutions in charge of forestry accountancy networks in these countries recently launched an initiative to establish comparable datasets and to provide additional background information allowing a sound interpretation of any differences. This paper reflects the associated challenges, describes the agreements achieved as well as the common approaches adopted, and presents respective forestry financial results. This example illustrates the prospects as well as the limitations of deriving comparable data from heterogeneous sources. Initially, only few ratios are suited for valid comparisons. However, international compatibility could be improved substantially by computing alternative aggregates following a harmonized concept, the individual records of the participating enterprises providing respective details. In respect to some items, harmonization still hinges on specific amendments of the national data-frames. The preliminary findings indicate that the significance of biases varies to a great extent, so that a specific and prudent assessment is suggested. It is recommended that respective interfaces are provided when designing new forest accountancy data networks and amending existing ones in this respect.     

南非林业发展及启示与两国林业合作展望

中国正在加强实施"走出去"战略,寻求多元化的林业国际合作。南非是非洲最为发达的国家,并且与中国同为发展中国家和金砖国家。文中以FAO和南非农林渔业部等机构最新资料和数据为依据,介绍南非森林资源、林业法规、管理机构、森林经营管理、森林旅游、林产品生产与贸易等林业发展现状,探讨其土地产权问题、林业转型和社区参与对中国林业发展的一些启示,并提出中国可与南非在精准提升森林质量、林产品贸易、森林资源开发以及旱区造林技术等领域深入合作,为加强双边合作提供参考,对提升中国林业在非洲乃至国际上的形象与影响力具有重要意义。     

Evaluating the impacts of an international phytosanitary standard for wood packaging material: Global and United States trade implications

Wood packaging material (WPM) is a significant pathway by which bark- and wood-boring insects move between countries. Recognising this threat, an international standard for the treatment of WPM (ISPM 15) is being implemented by many countries. In addition, the United States has considered application of similar requirements to WPM used in domestic and bilateral trade with Canada. We use a domestic margin-inclusive version of the Global Trade Analysis model to estimate the economic and trade impacts of ISPM 15, along with alternatives of varying stringency. We also estimate the economic impacts of one of the benefits of ISPM 15; averted United States forest owner timber losses. ISPM 15 is likely to have a small, negative effect on exports and economic welfare for most countries. However, there is significant regional and sectoral variation, depending on the product mix traded. If ISPM 15 requirements are extended to United States domestic trade, the impacts on the United States are stronger. Inclusion of averted United States timber losses partly, but not completely, offset welfare and trade impacts of the ISPM 15 treatment. These results must be tempered with the additional benefits of ISPM 15 in terms of potential averted household and environmental damages.     

莫桑比克林业发展现状及中莫两国林业合作探析

莫桑比克森林资源丰富,是中国在非洲的主要热带木材及原木来源地。在利于两国共同发展的基础上,中莫两国林业建立了广泛的合作。由于莫桑比克毁林和森林质量下降的问题,中国企业林业投资又面临国际上的质疑和批评,迫切需要改进两国林业合作与发展方式和策略。文中介绍了莫桑比克森林资源、林业管理体系、森林采伐、木材加工、流通与贸易等发展现状,提出了促进中莫两国林业国际合作可持续发展的建议。     

The Picking of Wild Berries in Finland in 1997 and 1998

Nation-wide figures related to berry-picking in Finland were based on postal questionnaire surveys carried out in 1997 and 1998. The sample in 1997 consisted of 6849 households and the response rate was 60%. The questionnaire was concerned with the utilization of all non-wood forest products. In 1998, a subsample of 1858 households was taken and the new questionnaire focused solely on berries and mushrooms. The response rate was 69%. In 1997, Finnish households picked 56.5 million kg of wild berries (95% confidence limits were 52.3 and 60.4 million kg). In 1998, a total of 49.7 million kg (44.0, 55.3) was picked. In 1997 the proportion of products sold was 27%, harvested by 5% of households. It is possible that the quantity of wild berries picked in 1997 was higher than in any year previously, but because of a lack of reliable earlier data this cannot be verified.     

世界松香工业经济和技术发展趋势

介绍了历年来中国和世界松香主产国的松香产量、出口量以及近年来世界松香生产趋向和国际市场贸易动向,分析了当前主要消费松香的工业部门技术发展后对松香工业提出的新挑战以及应采取的对策。对近5年来美、日等国出现的松香衍生物品种、应用技术和途径新专利进行了综述性介绍。