Conservation of transnational species: The tensions between legal requirements and best scientific evidence

1. This paper describes the tensions between the legal requirements for conservation and the most beneficial biological practice for mobile transnational marine species, using the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) in European Atlantic waters as a case study.
2. Harbour porpoise are the smallest and one of the most abundant cetaceans occurring throughout the European continental shelf waters, and are affected by human activities occurring in the same waters, especially certain fishing activities.
3. The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention) and its implementing legislation the Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 92/43/EEC (i.e. the Habitats Directive) are the main legal drivers for species conservation throughout the European Union. They aim for the long-term achievement of favourable conservation status and make provision for the use of two conservation measures: protected areas and strict protection measures. The strict protection measures aim to ensure that all forms of deliberate killing are prevented, and that where incidental killing and capture occurs, it does not have a negative effect on conservation status.
4. The conservation of harbour porpoise is currently dependent upon tackling the key issue of bycatch in fisheries. However, in challenges to Member States on their application of the Habitats Directive, the European Commission has chosen to focus on site designation rather than the implementation of the strict protection measures required to monitor and, where necessary, reduce bycatch.
5. This tension between a legal focus on the designation of protected areas instead of tackling threats such as bycatch has potentially led to negative conservation consequences for harbour porpoise and, in part, may explain why wider marine biodiversity has continued to deteriorate in Europe.

     

Dynamic ecosystem models and the evaluation of ecosystem effects of fishing: can we make meaningful predictions?

• 1. Fishing is one of the most widespread anthropogenic impacts on marine ecosystems. In recent times, the development of measurable metrics of the resultant ecosystem effects, has become an important aspect of fisheries management. Ecosystem models are often advocated as tools for the evaluation of system effects, but the extent to which models are able to make meaningful predictions, has not yet been fully addressed.
• 2. In order to assess the suitability of models, to evaluate ecosystem effects of fisheries, the direct and indirect effects were catalogued.
• 3. From the literature, 33 applications of marine ecosystem models were identified for analysis of their ability to fully assess these catalogued effects. Analysis was possible for only 24 of the models due to poor documentation of the other 9.
• 4. Each model was examined for their inclusion of nine functional groups, deemed essential for the assessment of impacts of fishing on the whole ecosystem (e.g. detritus, marine mammals). The models were also assessed for their inclusion of several additional factors, either fundamental in the regulation of marine ecosystems (e.g. environmental forcing), or important in the classification of their role as a predictor of changes in ecological processes (e.g. simulation, spatial properties).
• 5. No model formulation provided coverage in all the areas necessary to cover the identified effects of fisheries. Eight models provided good coverage, nutrient dynamics and benthos were the least well represented aspects of the ecosystem.
• 6. The ECOPATH with Ecosim family of models, the European Regional Seas Ecosystem Model (ERSEM) and the Anderson & Ursin multispecies extension to the Beverton & Holt model all seem likely to yield good insights.
• 7. In further developing these models, however, consideration must be given to explicitly incorporate spatial factors and extrinsic forcing functions, such as climate.

Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A review of climate change and the implementation of marine biodiversity legislation in the United Kingdom

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Case studies and reviews. Working towards a marine nature reserve in Jersey

• 1. A biological inventory is described for Portelet Bay, on the south coast of Jersey in the Channel Islands, which has been selected for the Island's first marine nature reserve.
• 2. The application of site assessment criteria in justifying the selection of the site is discussed.
• 3. Conclusions are drawn on the process by which marine reserve status might be achieved.

     

Viewpoint. Management of Marine Protected Areas in the UK: Lessons from statutory and voluntary approaches

• 1. The establishment of Marine Protected Areas in the UK has been an extremely slow process. Two sites have statutory protection and a further nine are voluntary marine conservation areas.
• 2. There has been a distinctly different approach to site protection depending on whether the initiative is statutory or voluntary. The advantages and disadvantages of each are illustrated through examples.
• 3. Sites with voluntary protection are often seen as positive, and involving the local community. The overriding issue for legally protected sites is concern that they are a threat to existing rights.
• 4. A combined approach is needed. There should be statutory protection for key sites, whereas voluntary marine protected areas should be encouraged all around the coast, regardless of whether an area is of nature conservation value.
• 5. A key lesson to learn from the voluntary approach is the need to involve people who will be affected by the proposals as early as possible.

     

Looking beyond the horizon: An early warning system to keep marine mammal information relevant for conservation

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Protecting the Commons: the use of Subtidal Ecosystem Engineers in Marine Management

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Prioritizing marine invasive alien species in the European Union through horizon scanning

1. The disproportionately low presence of marine species in the list of invasive alien species (IAS) of Union concern of the European Union (EU) Regulation 1143/2014 does not fully acknowledge the threat they pose to the EU marine environment.
2. In this study, the first EU‐scale Horizon Scanning (HS) focusing on marine alien species was performed, aiming to deliver a ranked list of species that should be of high priority for risk assessment (Article 5 of the EU IAS Regulation).
3. Species absent from or with a limited distribution in EU marine waters were targeted. In total, 363 alien species were initially screened for HS by a panel of experts, including a broad range of taxonomic groups. Species were scored for their likelihood of arrival, establishment, spread, and impact in EU waters.
4. A consensus workshop ranked 267 species, including a subset of 26 prioritized species. These species are considered to be mainly introduced by shipping (fouling and ballast water), via the Suez Canal, and aquaculture activities. The 26 priority species were also scrutinized in terms of feasibility of their management; 18 of them were suggested for performing risk assessments on the basis of the EU IAS Regulation.
5. Since biological invasions are dynamic and connected with accelerated globalization and diversified human activities, we recommend HS to be repeated periodically to review the species already listed and assess new ones.

     

Intertidal habitat conservation: identifying conservation targets in the absence of detailed biological information

• 1. Growing concern associated with threats to the marine environment has resulted in an increased demand for marine reserves that conserve representative and adequate examples of biodiversity. Often, the decisions about where to locate reserves must be made in the absence of detailed information on the patterns of distribution of the biota. Alternative approaches are required that include defining habitats using surrogates for biodiversity. Surrogate measures of biodiversity enable decisions about where to locate marine reserves to be made more reliably in the absence of detailed data on the distribution of species.
• 2. Intertidal habitat types derived using physical properties of the shoreline were used as a surrogate for intertidal biodiversity to assist with the identification of sites for inclusion in a candidate system of intertidal marine reserves for 17 463 km of the mainland coast of Queensland, Australia. This represents the first systematic approach, on essentially one‐dimensional data, using fine‐scale (tens to hundreds of metres) intertidal habitats to identify a system of marine reserves for such a large length of coast. A range of solutions would provide for the protection of a representative example of intertidal habitats in Queensland.
• 3. The design and planning of marine and terrestrial protected areas systems should not be undertaken independently of each other because it is likely to lead to inadequate representation of intertidal habitats in either system. The development of reserve systems specially designed to protect intertidal habitats should be integrated into the design of terrestrial and marine protected area systems.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The determination of ecological status in shallow lakes — a tested system (ECOFRAME) for implementation of the European Water Framework Directive

• 1. The European Water Framework Directive requires the determination of ecological status in European fresh and saline waters. This is to be through the establishment of a typology of surface water bodies, the determination of reference (high status) conditions in each element (ecotype) of the typology and of lower grades of status (good, moderate, poor and bad) for each ecotype. It then requires classification of the status of the water bodies and their restoration to at least ‘good status’ in a specified period.
• 2. Though there are many methods for assessing water quality, none has the scope of that defined in the Directive. The provisions of the Directive require a wide range of variables to be measured and give only general guidance as to how systems of classification should be established. This raises issues of comparability across States and of the costs of making the determinations.
• 3. Using expert workshops and subsequent field testing, a practicable pan‐European typology and classification system has been developed for shallow lakes, which can easily be extended to all lakes. It is parsimonious in its choice of determinands, but based on current limnological understanding and therefore as cost‐effective as possible.
• 4. A core typology is described, which can be expanded easily in particular States to meet local conditions. The core includes 48 ecotypes across the entire European climate gradient and incorporates climate, lake area, geology of the catchment and conductivity.
• 5. The classification system is founded on a liberal interpretation of Annexes in the Directive and uses variables that are inexpensive to measure and ecologically relevant. The need for taxonomic expertise is minimized.
• 6. The scheme has been through eight iterations, two of which were tested in the field on tranches of 66 lakes. The final version, Version 8, is offered for operational testing and further refinement by statutory authorities.

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Marine research,resources and conservation in the Azores

• 1 A history of marine research on the Azores is outlined. Until two decades ago most oceanic and littoral marine studies had been carried out by foreign scientists. Studies by Azorean scientists started to increase in the early 1980s when the University of the Azores was created.
• 2 Ocean circulation in this part of the Atlantic is described as a background for biogeography and diversity. The picture emerges that Azores is a ?meeting point’? for shallow water marine fauna and flora of different origins.
• 3 The species composition of one of the best studied groups of organisms, the fish, is compared between locations in the northeastern Atlantic. The work on fish is also compared with other well studied groups (algae and hydroids) to highlight the interest of the Azores as a natural biogeographical experiment.
• 4 Studies of marine resources began less than two decades ago. The development of demersal fisheries is described focusing on the switch from small-scale artisanal fishing to more commercial fisheries.
• 5 Conservation of species and legislation in force for molluscs, crustaceans, fishes, marine turtles, seabirds and marine mammals are summarized.
• 6 Protected marine areas already designated are defined, as well as new areas recommended.
• 7 The paper concludes with a discussion of current threats and future management strategies.

     

The HELCOM system of a vision,strategic goals and ecological objectives: implementing an ecosystem approach to the management of human activities in the Baltic Sea

• 1. Since signing the Helsinki Convention in 1974, the countries with coasts around the Baltic Sea have striven jointly within the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) towards the ecological restoration of the Baltic Sea. The European Community signed the revised Convention in 1992.
• 2. Work under HELCOM includes implementing joint recommendations to curb pollution originating from land and marine sources, ensuring safer maritime traffic, and protecting biodiversity, for example, by setting up a network of Baltic Sea protected areas.
• 3. A new concept — the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities — was adopted by the Contracting Parties of HELCOM in 2003 to serve as the new framework for further efforts towards attaining good ecological status of the Baltic Sea.
• 4. Stepwise progress towards the development of quantitative definitions of good ecological status has been made since 2003 to implement the new approach: a common vision reflecting the ecosystem approach was adopted in 2004 and a number of more targeted goals and objectives were agreed in 2006.
• 5. The Contracting Parties to the Helsinki Convention will use the objectives adopted covering eutrophication, impacts of hazardous substances, and the overall status of biodiversity, including the impact of fisheries and shipping, to draft a new set of joint management actions.
• 6. In the future, an agreement under development among the Contracting Parties on indicators with quantitative targets will enable a quantitative assessment of ‘good ecological status’ and progress towards the goals of HELCOM, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), as well European legislation concerning marine environmental protection.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bio‐physical models of marine environments reveal biases in the representation of protected areas

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Is European catfish a threat to eels in southern France?

• 1. European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is recognized as a critically endangered species in the northern hemisphere. Threats such as overfishing or pollution are well known as risks for eel populations. However, much less is known about the impact of introduced fish on European eels. In particular, introduced large‐bodied predators could become new predators to eels.
• 2. The potential impact of European catfish (Silurus glanis L) on an eel population in the Camargue, southern France was studied using a combination of stable isotope and gut content analyses.
• 3. Only large‐bodied catfish (>500 mm) can consume numerous fish prey. However, catfish mostly consumed crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), these prey items being found in 79% of the guts of the largest individuals. Eel was absent from the dissected catfish guts. A mixing model based on Bayesian inference revealed that catfish diet included only 5% (0–8.5%) of marine sources (both eel and mullet).
• 4. While local economic interests prompted ecological studies to assess whether catfish exerted a new and strong predatory pressure on eel, this study found that European catfish behaved as an opportunistic omnivore, and as such was not a direct threat as a predator on eel populations in the Camargue. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

     

Geospatial genetics: Integrating genetics into marine protection and spatial planning

1. The protection of evolutionary processes and maintenance of genetic diversity is necessary for the persistence of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. The importance of genetic diversity has been reflected in a range of marine policy mechanisms, and the genetic ‘toolbox’ has great potential to support marine protection and marine spatial planning (MSP) at multiple scales. Despite scientific advances in the application of genetics in marine protection and management, systematic integration of genetic information has been generally lacking, primarily due to a knowledge and communication disconnect between geneticists and the marine policy and management community.
2. To meet these outstanding needs, a ‘geospatial genetics’ approach to spatially map species-specific genetic data and associated information in a way that can be readily integrated by practitioners into marine protection and MSP decisions was developed. Techniques to derive geospatial genetic data layers, which can be viewed and mapped alongside other kinds of spatial data commonly used by conservation practitioners, hold promise for increasing the accessibility of genetic data to support policy decisions more fully.
3. While applicable to many mobile and sessile taxa, an initial focus was placed on marine mammals, and the approach was developed and refined through a series of international meetings and published papers, as well as the development of interactive, expert-reviewed case studies hosted on the MSP tool SeaSketch.
4. Outcomes of the work to date are currently serving in the policy arena by informing the identification of Important Marine Mammal Areas, an initiative led by the IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force to apply criteria to identify marine mammal habitats across the world's ocean, seas and relevant inland waters through a standardized process.
5. It has become clear that geospatial genetics has great potential to foster increased collaboration among an intersectional community of geneticists, spatial ecologists, and practitioners. This increased opportunity for dialogue and cooperation will help ensure that evolutionary processes are factored into marine protection and MSP processes, and potentially for freshwater and terrestrial systems.

     

Marine protected areas in southern China: Upgrading conservation effectiveness in the ‘eco‐civilization’ era

1. ensuring that marine systems are not overwhelmed within the new national jurisdiction, and maintaining and enhancing marine capacity;
2. increased resourcing, supported by comprehensive and systematic economic valuations of ecosystem goods and services and natural capital;
3. upgraded enforcement of existing environmental laws and regulations, combined with further refinement and development, especially around cumulative impact management;
4. a particular focus on major reduction in water pollution in all forms;
5. integration of marine management between Hong Kong SAR and surrounding Guangdong Province; and
6. enhanced community engagement, participation and education.
7. Finally, much greater, collaborative engagement by the international community with Chinese marine management and conservation would bring major, and very mutual, benefits.

     

From one to ten: Canada's approach to achieving marine conservation targets

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Marine zoning revisited: How decades of zoning the Great Barrier Reef has evolved as an effective spatial planning approach for marine ecosystem‐based management

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Progress,opportunities and challenges for marine conservation in the Pacific Islands

1. The people of the Pacific have long relied on the ocean for sustenance, commerce and cultural identity, which resulted in a sophisticated understanding of the marine environment and its conservation.
2. The global declines in ocean health require new and innovative approaches to conserving marine ecosystems. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been shown to be a highly effective means of conserving biodiversity and managing fisheries, while also restoring and preserving overall ecosystem function.
3. Traditional ecological knowledge held by many island peoples in the Pacific is critical to the development, design and implementation of contemporary MPAs.
4. Chile's offshore islands are among the few oceanic archipelagos along the west coast of South America. These islands have cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific, yet our scientific understanding of them is extremely limited.
5. Chile has created several large-scale MPAs around their offshore archipelagos. By protecting these unique ecosystems, Chile has established itself as a global leader in marine conservation.
6. Effective management and a better understanding of social–ecological interactions are currently the biggest challenges facing MPAs in the Pacific Islands.

     

Towards local governance of marine resources and ecosystems on Easter Island

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