Microscreen effects on water quality in replicated recirculating aquaculture systems

This study investigated the effects of three microscreen mesh sizes (100, 60 and 20 μm) on water quality and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) performance compared to a control group without microscreens, in triplicated recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Operational conditions were kept constant during a 6-week period where the microscreens were manually rinsed three times a day. The effects of microscreen cleaning frequency and nitrification performance were subsequently assessed.Compared to the control group, microscreens removed particles, reduced particulate organic matter, and increased β-values. Particulate parameters reached steady-state in all treatment groups having microscreens at the end of the trial. The time to reach equilibrium seemingly increased with increasing mesh size but the three treatment groups (100, 60 and 20 μm) did not significantly differ at the end of the trial. Increased backwashing frequency over a 24-h period had no further significant effects on the parameters measured. The results demonstrated the role and importance of a microscreen, and showed that mesh size, within the range tested, is less important at long operations under constant conditions.Fish performed similarly in all treatments. Preliminary screening of trout gills did not reveal any pathological changes related to microscreen filtration and the resulting water quality. Biofilter performance was also unaffected, with 0′-order nitrification rates (k_0a) being equivalent for all twelve systems (0.148 ± 0.022 g N m⁻² d⁻¹).Mechanisms for RAS equilibrium establishment, within and between systems with different mesh sizes, are discussed.     

The effects of ozonation on select waterborne steroid hormones in recirculation aquaculture systems containing sexually mature Atlantic salmon Salmo salar

Steroid hormones have been shown to accumulate in recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) water over time; however, their influence on the reproductive physiology of fish within RAS remains unknown. Whether ozonation impacts waterborne hormone levels in RAS has likewise not been fully evaluated. To this end, a controlled 3-month study was conducted in 6 replicated RAS containing a mixture of sexually mature and immature Atlantic salmon Salmo salar to determine whether ozone, as typically applied in RAS to improve water quality, is associated with a reduction in waterborne hormones. Post-smolt Atlantic salmon (1253 ± 15 g) were stocked into each RAS; 109 of 264 fish placed in each system were sexually mature males, and 5 were mature females. Water ozonation, controlled using an ORP set-point of 290–300 mV, was applied with the pure oxygen feed gas within the low-head oxygenators of 3 randomly selected RAS, while the remaining 3 RAS did not receive ozone. The RAS hydraulic retention time was 6.9 ± 0.3 days. Study fish were raised under these conditions for 12 weeks; during weeks 10 and 12, triplicate water samples were collected from the following locations in each RAS: i) culture tank, ii) makeup water, iii) pre-biofilter, iv) post-biofilter, and v) post-gas conditioning. Concentrations of 3 waterborne hormones – testosterone, 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT), and estradiol (17β-estradiol) – were quantified using enzyme immunoassays (EIA). Estradiol was significantly reduced by ozonation; testosterone and 11-KT were also reduced by ozonation, although these reductions were not observed across all sampling locations and events. Testosterone and 11-KT concentrations, however, were significantly reduced following water passage through the biofilters of both ozonated and non-ozonated RAS. The results of this study demonstrate the potential for ozone to be used in RAS as a means of preventing the accumulation of steroid hormones. Further research is required to assess whether reducing hormones in this manner impacts precocious sexual maturation in RAS-produced Atlantic salmon.     

A comparison of larval production of the northern scallop,Argopecten purpuratus,in closed and recirculating culture systems

Northern scallop Argopecten purpuratus aquaculture relies on an efficient all year-round larval supply. Larvae are generally produced in closed aquaculture systems (CAS) using the batch techniques with periodical water changes. For instance, survival rates are greatly variable and can range from 0 to 80% making production of scallop larvae uncertain. The main goal of this study was to determine the feasibility of rearing scallop larvae in a recirculating aquacultural system (RAS), and secondarily to compare scallop larval growth rate and time length to reach the settling stage when reared with a traditional Chilean CAS technique and in a novel RAS technique in an industrial-like approach.Several batches of larvae were cultured in CAS and RAS. Larvae were fed on Isochrysis galbana cultured in 35-L tubular photobioreactors. Growth rates were significantly different (F_11,2840 = 274.66; p < 0.001). All scallop larvae cultured in CAS showed lower growth rates ranging within 4.49 and 7.30 μm day^?1 and protracted period of culture until settlement (at least 10 more culture days) than those reared in RAS (growth rates between 9.56 and 13.15 μm day^?1). However, final survival (from D-larvae until settlement) of larvae reared in CAS showed higher values than those values recorded for larvae cultured on RAS. Higher growth rates observed in RAS could be attributed to a reduction in daily manipulation of the animals and/or more feed availability as well as higher temperatures and a steady state conditions in water quality. Even though, the reduction in time for rearing larvae until settlement in RAS was high, the comparison between systems is more significant in view of the reduction in make up seawater from 100% of system volume (CAS) to less than 10% of system volume (RAS). Therefore, RAS was independent from daily water quality variation from natural seawater by increasing water retention time, and with that improve water quality steady state conditions. Results of this research show that a more efficient use of water and heating systems than generally used in the Chilean hatchery industry is achievable. This is an important result since it could lead to significant reductions in the cost of operating a scallop hatchery, however further work is required to accurately compare the two systems (CAS and RAS). The main result from this research is that scallop larvae can be cultivated using recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) as a method to increase production. The information reported in this paper will be useful for the improvement of scallop larvae culture techniques under controlled conditions.     

Effects of alkalinity on ammonia removal,carbon dioxide stripping,and system pH in semi-commercial scale water recirculating aquaculture systems operated with moving bed bioreactors

When operating water recirculating systems (RAS) with high make-up water flushing rates in locations that have low alkalinity in the raw water, such as Norway, knowledge about the required RAS alkalinity concentration is important. Flushing RAS with make-up water containing low alkalinity washes out valuable base added to the RAS (as bicarbonate, hydroxide, or carbonate), which increases farm operating costs when high alkalinity concentrations are maintained; however, alkalinity must not be so low that it interferes with nitrification or pH stability. For these reasons, a study was designed to evaluate the effects of alkalinity on biofilter performance, and CO₂ stripping during cascade aeration, within two replicate semi-commercial scale Atlantic salmon smolt RAS operated with moving bed biological filters. Alkalinity treatments of nominal 10, 70, and 200 mg/L as CaCO₃ were maintained using a pH controller and chemical dosing pumps supplying sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃). Each of the three treatments was replicated three times in each RAS. Both RAS were operated at each treatment level for 2 weeks; water quality sampling was conducted at the end of the second week. A constant feeding of 23 kg/day/RAS was provided every 1–2 h, and continuous lighting, which minimized diurnal fluctuations in water quality. RAS hydraulic retention time and water temperature were 4.3 days and 12.5 ± 0.5 °C, respectively, typical of smolt production RAS in Norway.It was found that a low nominal alkalinity (10 mg/L as CaCO₃) led to a significantly higher steady-state TAN concentration, compared to when 70 or 200 mg/L alkalinity was used. The mean areal nitrification rate was higher at the lowest alkalinity; however, the mean TAN removal efficiency across the MBBR was not significantly affected by alkalinity treatment. The CO₂ stripping efficiency showed only a tendency towards higher efficiency at the lowest alkalinity. In contrast, the relative fraction of total inorganic carbon that was removed from the RAS during CO₂ stripping was much higher at a low alkalinity (10 mg/L) compared to the higher alkalinities (70 and 200 mg/L as CaCO₃). Despite this, when calculating the total loss of inorganic carbon from RAS, it was found that the daily loss was about equal at 10, and 70 mg/L, whereas it was highest at 200 mg/L alkalinity. pH recordings demonstrated that the 10 mg/L alkalinity treatment resulted in the lowest system pH, the largest increase in [H⁺] across the fish culture tanks, as well as giving little response time in case of alkalinity dosing malfunction. Rapid pH changes under the relatively acidic conditions at 10 mg/L alkalinity may ultimately create fish health issues due to e.g. CO₂ or if aluminium or other metals are present. In conclusion, Atlantic salmon smolt producers using soft water make-up sources should aim for 70 mg/L alkalinity considering the relatively low loss of inorganic carbon compared to 200 mg/L alkalinity, and the increased pH stability as well as reduced TAN concentration, compared to lower alkalinity concentrations.     

Evaluating the chronic effects of nitrate on the health and performance of post-smolt Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in freshwater recirculation aquaculture systems

Commercial production of Atlantic salmon smolts, post-smolts, and market-size fish using land-based recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS) is expanding. RAS generally provide a nutrient-rich environment in which nitrate accumulates as an end-product of nitrification. An 8-month study was conducted to compare the long-term effects of “high” (99 ± 1 mg/L NO₃-N) versus “low” nitrate-nitrogen (10.0 ± 0.3 mg/L NO₃-N) on the health and performance of post-smolt Atlantic salmon cultured in replicate freshwater RAS. Equal numbers of salmon with an initial mean weight of 102 ± 1 g were stocked into six 9.5 m³ RAS. Three RAS were maintained with high NO₃-N via continuous dosing of sodium nitrate and three RAS were maintained with low NO₃-N resulting solely from nitrification. An average daily water exchange rate equivalent to 60% of the system volume limited the accumulation of water quality parameters other than nitrate. Atlantic salmon performance metrics (e.g. weight, length, condition factor, thermal growth coefficient, and feed conversion ratio) were not affected by 100 mg/L NO₃-N and cumulative survival was >99% for both treatments. No important differences were noted between treatments for whole blood gas, plasma chemistry, tissue histopathology, or fin quality parameters suggesting that fish health was unaffected by nitrate concentration. Abnormal swimming behaviors indicative of stress or reduced welfare were not observed. This research suggests that nitrate-nitrogen concentrations ≤ 100 mg/L do not affect post-smolt Atlantic salmon health or performance under the described conditions.     

Process requirements for achieving full-flow disinfection of recirculating water using ozonation and UV irradiation

A continuous water disinfection process can be used to prevent the introduction and accumulation of obligate and opportunistic fish pathogens in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), especially during a disease outbreak when the causative agent would otherwise proliferate within the system. To proactively prevent the accumulation of fish pathogens, ozonation and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation processes have been used separately or in combination to treat water in RAS before it returns to the fish culture tanks. The objective of the present study was to determine the process requirements necessary to disinfect the full RAS flow, using ozonation followed by UV irradiation, just before the flow was returned to the fish culture tank(s). We found that a proportional-integral (PI) feed-back control loop was able to automatically adjust the concentration of ozone (O₃) generated in the oxygen feed gas (and thus added in the low head oxygenator) in order to maintain the dissolved O₃ residual or ORP at a pre-selected set-point. We determined that it was easier and effective to continuously monitor and automatically control O₃ dose using an oxidative reduction potential (ORP) probe (in comparison to a dissolved ozone probe) that was located at the outlet of the O₃ contact chamber and immediately before water entered the UV irradiation unit. PI control at an ORP set-point of 450 and 525 mv and a dissolved O₃ set-point of 20 ppb provided almost complete full-flow inactivation of heterotrophic bacteria plate counts (i.e., producing <1 cfu/mL) and improved water quality (especially color and %UVT) in a full-scale recirculating system. Achieving this level of treatment required adding a mean dose of approximately 29 ± 3 g O₃ per kg feed. However, because water is treated and reused repeatedly in a water reuse system, the mean daily O₃ demand required to maintain an ORP of 375–525 mV (or at 20 ppb dissolved O₃) was 0.34–0.39 mg/L, which is nearly 10 times lower than what is typically required to disinfect surface water in a single pass treatment. These findings can be used to improve biosecurity and product quality planning by providing a means for continuous water disinfection in controlled intensive RAS.     

The effect of nearly closed RAS on the feed intake and growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and European eel (Anguilla anguilla)

One of the challenges that Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) are still facing is the risk that in RAS fish grow less than in flow-through systems due to the accumulation of substances originating from feed, fish or bacteria associated with the water re-use. The present study investigated whether RAS with high and low accumulation levels of these substances affect feed intake and growth of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, African catfish Clarias gariepinus, and European eel Anguilla Anguilla. One-hundred and twenty individuals of each species were used (start body weights: Nile tilapia 264.8 ± 8.3 g; African catfish 253.2 ± 2.1 g and European eel 66.6 ± 1.3 g). For a period of 39 days, growth and feed intake were compared between high and low accumulation RAS. HIGH accumulation RAS was designed for maximal accumulation of substances in the water by operating the system at nearly-closed conditions (30 L/kg feed/d), using mature biofilters and high feed loads; and (2) LOW accumulation RAS was designed to be a proxy for flow-through systems by operating at high water exchange rates (1500 L/kg feed/d), new biofilters and low feed load. HIGH accumulation RAS induced a reduction in feed intake (42%) and growth (83%) of Nile tilapia, as compared to systems that are a proxy for flow-through conditions. This effect was not observed in European eel and African catfish. The cause of this reduced feed intake and growth rate of Nile tilapia is still unclear and should be addressed in further studies.     

Design and evaluate a drum screen filter driven by undershot waterwheel for aquaculture recirculating systems

Micro-screen rotating drum filters are an alternative to sand filtration especially when excessive waste water is a concern. The filtering process of drum screen filters is very simple, yet very efficient and reliable due to their overall design and operation. Drum filters are designed with few moving parts to ensure a long life with low operating/maintenance costs.Micro-screening essentially captures particles on a screen fabric while letting the water pass. This paper describes a design of two an industrial-scale drum screen filters driven by undershot wheel and its performance installed in recirculating aquaculture system culturing tilapia at El-Nenaeia fish farm. These filters are consisted of a woven metal mesh of 100 μm. The design criteria for solids loading rate in the influent water is 10 kg m⁻² min⁻¹.The results indicate that the design parameters of the filter such as surface are and rotation speed were affected by the water flow rate, where the surface area and drum speed ranged from 1.58 to 27.87 m², and 1.05 to 8.40, respectively. The results also indicated that the efficiency of filter decreased during the first two months compared to the last two months of fish growth period, with an average 34.22 ± 8.85% during the first 60 days and an average 52.41 ± 16.77% during the last period. Using water wheels for driving the screen filter is very important in saving energy, where the filter with such dimensions needs 1.0 hp for driving it, which represents 18.0 kW daily.     

Effect of water recirculation on seawater quality and production of scallop (Pecten maximus) larvae

Scallop larval production systems in Norway have changed from the use of batch to continuous flow through systems (FTS) during the last decade. Energy use to heat water in both larval and spat nurseries is considerable. Two experiments (June 2010 and February 2011) using water recirculation technology (RAS) were performed in large scale systems (3500 L larval tanks) supplied with continuous addition of algal feed, and 20% renewal of seawater.In the RAS a gradual increase in CO₂, decrease in pH and dissolved oxygen was observed over time. This was most obvious during experiment two, when the total organic carbon content increased in both FTS and RAS. The total bacterial number was lower and more stable in FTS than in the RAS. The variations in seawater quality parameters were smaller during the first experiment compared to the second, when values of oxygen saturation were reduced to <70%, pH was 7.8 and NO₃⁻ reached 5 mg L⁻¹. Even though these changes would seem less beneficial for survival and growth of scallop larvae, results showed that the survival at the end of the larval stage was higher in the FTS, but the yield of competent larvae ready for settlement was not significant different (p > 0.05) due to large variations between tanks. The CV% was 28.9% in FTS, while it was 49.9% in RAS. In FTS the mean yield was 40.2%, while it was 26.5% of initial number of larvae in RAS. Large variations in survival and yield were found between the larval tanks as well as gradual reduction in pH and oxygen in RAS tanks. The results indicate that there is a large potential for 80% reduction in water use by utilizing recirculation technology.     

Effect of increased water recirculation rate on algal supply and post-larval performance of scallop (Pecten maximus) reared in a partial open and continuous feeding system

In a commercial scallop hatchery spat production depends on a culture system which ensures high survival and good growth. Reuse of water with algae may increase the food exploitation and hence reduce the costs. Post-larvae of great scallop (Pecten maximus) were studied in a commercial hatchery using a partial open and continuous feeding tank system. Three different water recirculation rates (67, 83 and 92%) were tried out in two experiments with post-larvae originating from three spawning groups of ages between 43 and 57 days post-spawn, 316–886 μm shell-height and 1.1–9.6 μg ash-free dry weight. The post-larvae were held in sieves in tanks of 2500 l where a downwelling flow was maintained by airlifts. New water with a mix of monocultured algae was continuously added to the tanks at algal concentrations of 10 and 15 cells μl⁻¹ in experiment 1 (groups 1 and 2) and 2 (group 3), respectively. The algal supply to each sieve was reduced along with increased recirculation rate, but was kept between 6 and 13 cells μl⁻¹. Generally no significant differences in survival, growth or chemical content were found between the three recirculation rates, while few differences were found between and within groups. Large variation in survival was found between and within groups (1–81%). Highest survival was found in experiment 1, and where post-larvae from two settlements were used, the first settlement survived better than the second. The daily growth ranged from 15 to 62 μm shell-height and from 0.3 to 2.6 μg ash-free dry weight. The scallop post-larvae could well be reared at all three recirculation rates studied as an increase from 67 to 92% did not seem to affect the post-larval performance seriously. The algal supply, however, had to be compensated by an increasing number of cells (>10 cells μl⁻¹) when increasing the recirculation rate.     

Water delivery capacity of a vacuum airlift – Application to water recycling in aquaculture systems

A study was undertaken to measure the water flow (Q_w) delivered by a vacuum airlift designed for recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) in fresh (<1‰ of salinity) and sea water (35‰ of salinity). The vacuum airlift consists of two concentric tubes connected at their top to a depression chamber. The water rises in the inner tube as a result of air being injected in its lower section and flows back through the external downcomer tube. The vacuum airlift was adjusted at three different lengths: 2, 4 or 6 m and water discharge could be lifted from 0 to 30 cm. Air flow rate (Q_g) varied from 0 to 80 L min⁻¹. Different types of air injectors were tested, delivering different bubble sizes (0.1–5 mm) depending on porosity and functioning at low or high injection pressure. Results show an increase in water flow when pipe length and air flow were increased and lift height reduced. Water flow also depended on the type of water and ranged from 0 to 35 m³ h⁻¹ (0–580 L min⁻¹) for fresh water and only from 0 to 20 m³ h⁻¹ (0–330 L min⁻¹) for sea water (for a 6 m high vacuum airlift). This difference was attributed to the smaller bubble diameter and higher gas holdup (ɛ_g) observed in sea water (0–20%) compared to fresh water (0–10%). When bubbles were present in the downcomer tube, they created a resistance to flow (counter-current airlift) that slowed down liquid velocity and thus water flow. Increasing the vacuum made it possible to use low air injection pressures and high injection depths. Vacuum also increased bubble size and airflow (20 L min⁻¹ at atmospheric pressure to 60 L min⁻¹ at 0.3 barA) and thus water flow rates. With RAS, the presence of fish feed in water rapidly increased water flow delivered by the airlift because of changes of water quality and gas holdup. When working with low head RAS (under 0.3 m), vacuum airlift could save up to 50% of the energy required for centrifugal pumps. An empirical predictive model was developed and calibrated. Simulation shows a good correlation between predicted values and measurements (R² = 0.96).     

A novel approach for ammonia removal from fresh-water recirculated aquaculture systems,comprising ion exchange and electrochemical regeneration

A new physico-chemical process for ammonia removal from fresh-water recirculated aquaculture systems (RASs) is introduced. The method is based on separating NH₄⁺ from RAS water through an ion-exchange resin, which is subsequently regenerated by simultaneous chemical desorption and indirect electrochemical ammonia oxidation. Approach advantages include (1) only slight temperature dependence and no dependence on bacterial predators and chemical toxins; (2) no startup period is required and the system can be switched on and off at will; and (3) the fish are grown in much lower bacterial concentration, making the potential for both disease and off-flavor, lower. A small pilot scale RAS was operated for 51 d for proving the concept. The system was stocked by 105 tilapia fish (initial weight 35.8 g). The fish, which were maintained at high TAN (total ammonia nitrogen) concentrations (10–23 mgN L⁻¹) and fish density of up to 20 kg m⁻³, grew at a rate identical to their established growth potential. NH_3(aq) concentrations in the fish tank were maintained lower than the assumed toxicity threshold (0.1 mgN L⁻¹) by operating the pond water at low pH (6.5–6.7). The low pH resulted in efficient CO₂ air stripping, and low resultant CO_2(aq) concentrations (<7 mg L⁻¹). Due to efficient solids removal, no nitrification was observed in the fish tank and measured nitrite and nitrate concentrations were very low. The system was operated successfully, first at 10% and then at 5% daily makeup water exchange rate. The normalized operational costs, calculated based on data derived from the pilot operation, amounted to 28.7 $ cent per kg fish feed. The volume of the proposed process was calculated to be ∼13 times smaller than that of a typical RAS biofilter. The results show the process to be highly feasible from both the operational and economical standpoints.     

The effect of ozone on water quality and survival of turbot (Psetta maxima) maintained in a recirculating aquaculture system

Turbot, Psetta maxima, represent a valuable and growing subsector of global finfish aquaculture, although bacterial infections such as edwardsiellosis have adversely affected the industry in recent years. During an experiment designed to investigate the effect of direct ozonation on fish performance in RAS, a bacterial disease outbreak (Edwardsiella tarda) occurred, presenting an opportunity to record additional effects of experimental ozonation regimes on performance of turbot grown in RAS. This short note thus collates phenomenological information on survival, growth and water quality parameters recorded during a 91 day experiment with juvenile fish. Alongside antibiotic therapy, a high ozone treatment (360 mV) improved survival of stock compared to those in a non-ozonated control (200 mV) and significantly so compared to low ozone treatment (320 mV). Both experimental treatments reduced total heterotrophic and Vibrio sp. bacterial loading and nitrite concentration in culture water compared to the control. Experimental ozone treatment also suggested a trend for improved growth and feed intake. Although no confirmed link or mechanism between ozonation and reduced impacts of bacterial infection are proven in this study, the observations add further evidence to the body of work demonstrating beneficial effects of ozonation on water quality, survival and growth of farmed fish.     

End-of-pipe single-sludge denitrification in pilot-scale recirculating aquaculture systems

A step toward environmental sustainability of recirculat aquaculture systems (RAS) is implementation of single-sludge denitrification, a process eliminating nitrate from the aqueous environment while reducing the organic matter discharge simultaneously. Two 1700 L pilot-scale RAS systems each with a 85 L denitrification (DN) reactor treating discharged water and hydrolyzed solid waste were setup to test the kinetics of nitrate and COD removal. Nitrate removal and COD reduction efficiency was measured at two different DN-reactor sludge ages (high θ_X: 33–42 days and low θ_X: 17–23 days). Nitrate and total N (NO₃⁻ + NO₂⁻ + NH₄⁺) removal of the treated effluent water ranged from 73–99% and 60–95% during the periods, respectively, corresponding to an overall maximum RAS nitrate removal of approximately 75%. The specific nitrate removal rate increased from 17 to 23 mg NO₃⁻-N (g TVS d)⁻¹ and the maximal potential DN rate (measured at laboratory ideal conditions) increased correspondingly from 64–68 mg NO₃⁻-N (g TVS d)⁻¹ to 247–294 mg NO₃⁻-N (g TVS d)⁻¹ at high and low θ_X, respectively. Quantification of denitrifiers in the DN-reactors by qPCR showed only minor differences upon the altered sludge removal practice. The hydrolysis unit improved the biodegradability of the solid waste by increasing volatile fatty acid COD content 74–76%. COD reductions in the DN-reactors were 64–70%. In conclusion, this study showed that single-sludge denitrification was a feasible way to reduce nitrate discharge from RAS, and higher DN rates were induced at lower sludge age/increased sludge removal regime. Improved control and optimization of reactor DN-activity may be achieved by further modifying reactor design and management scheme as indicated by the variation in and between the two DN-reactors.     

Leaching properties of three different micropaticulate diets and preference of the diets in cod (Gadus morhua L.) larvae

Leakage of water soluble nutrients from larval microparticulated feeds is probably extensive and needs to be further investigated. Leaching rates of ¹⁴C-labelled serine, pepsin hydrolysed, protein enriched ¹⁴C-algae extract and intact protein enriched ¹⁴C-algae extract were measured from three microparticulated feeds for marine fish larvae (heat coagulated, protein bond feed; agglomerated feed; protein encapsulated feed). The effects of particle size (< 0.3 mm, 0.3–0.6 mm; 0.6–1.0 mm) and immersion time (1–60 min) in salt water were also tested. Leaching increased by decreasing molecular weight of leaching component (P < 10^− 5), by the feeds in order encapsulated, heat coagulated and agglomerated feeds (P < 10^− 5), by longer immersion time (P < 10^− 5), and by decreasing feed particle size (P < 10^− 5). Due to low protein content of the algae extract, the leaching rates of intact and hydrolysed algae extract did not represent absolute estimates for protein and hydrolysed protein leaching. A new estimate for leakage of hydrolysed protein was calculated based on molecular weight distribution of the hydrolysed algae extract analysed by cutoff centrifugation of the extract. Assuming that molecules < 300–600 or < 9–18 kD would leak, leakage of hydrolysed protein from the smallest feed particles after 5 min immersion would be 80–98%, 43–54% and 4–6% of the agglomerated, heat coagulated and protein encapsulated feeds, respectively. The feeds were also tested for preference in cod larvae of two different sizes (5.6 ± 2.5 mg and 15.8 ± 7.2 mg). The preference was highest for the heat coagulated feed in the first experiment (feed intake 0.32 ± 0.06 mg dry feed larvae^− 1) and the agglomerated in the second (2.04 ± 0.32 mg dry feed larvae^− 1), while the protein encapsulated feed was preferred at lower rates in both experiments (0.11–0.14 mg dry feed larvae^− 1).     

Foam fractionation efficiency of a vacuum airlift—Application to particulate matter removal in recirculating systems

The accumulation of particulate organic matter (POM) in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) has become an important issue with the intensification of finfish production. The objective of this study was to assess the foam fractionation efficiency of a vacuum airlift in different conditions (POM concentrations, airflow rates, bubble sizes, water renewal rates and feed addition). In sea water, the vacuum airlift allowed removing 20% of the initial POM concentration per hour (foam fractionation efficiency), corresponding to a 20.7-fold concentration factor between the tank and the foam. In rearing conditions, efficiency increased with decreasing water renewal rate or increasing POM concentration. An increase in airflow rate from 10 to 80 L min⁻¹ in the vacuum airlift significantly decreased foam fractionation efficiency when feed was added to the water. The impact of feeding was only observed with high airflow rates where bubble coalescence occurred. Calculated POM production by fish ranged between 15.9 and 23.5 g h⁻¹ and was equivalent to estimations based on feed conversion ratio (FCR). This indicated that all the POM produced was extracted by the vacuum airlift.     

Effect of different biofloc levels on microbial activity,water quality and performance of Litopenaeus vannamei in a tank system operated with no water exchange

In zero-exchange superintensive culture systems, flocculated particles (bioflocs) accumulate in the water column. Consequently, some control over the concentration of these particles must be performed. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of three concentrations of bioflocs on microbial activity, selected water quality indicators and performance of Litopenaeus vannamei in a tank system operated with no water exchange. A 44-day study was conducted with juvenile (6.8 g) shrimp stocked in twelve 850 L tanks at a stocking density of 459 shrimp m⁻³. Biofloc levels were expressed as three presets of total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations, as follows: 200 mg L⁻¹ (T200), 400–600 mg L⁻¹ (T400–600), and 800–1000 mg L⁻¹ (T800–1000). TSS levels were controlled by attaching a 40 L settling tank to each culture tank. Reduction of TSS to concentrations close to 200 mg L⁻¹ decreased the time of bacterial cell residence and significantly reduced the nitrification rates in the water (P < 0.05). The tanks in the T200 treatment had a greater variability of ammonia and nitrite (P < 0.05), which led to the need to increase the C:N ratio of the organic substrate to control ammonia through its assimilation into heterotrophic bacterial biomass. But the higher production of heterotrophic bacteria in T200 (P < 0.05) increased the dissolved oxygen demand. Nitrification rates were higher (P < 0.05) in tanks with TSS concentrations above 400 mg L⁻¹, and ammonia and nitrite were significantly lower than in the T200 tanks. We suggest that ammonia and nitrite in the T400–600 and T800–1000 tanks were controlled primarily by nitrifying bacteria, which provided higher stability of these parameters and of dissolved oxygen. Regarding shrimp performance, the reduction of TSS to levels close to 200 mg L⁻¹ was associated with better nutritional quality of bioflocs. Nevertheless, differences in biofloc levels and nutritional quality were not sufficient to affect the weight gain by shrimp. The rate of shrimp survival and the final shrimp biomass were lower (P < 0.05) when the TSS concentrations were higher than 800 mg L⁻¹. Analysis of the shrimps’ gills showed a higher degree of occlusion in the T800–1000 treatment (P < 0.05), which suggests that the shrimp have an intolerance to environments with a solids concentration above 800 mg L⁻¹. Our results show that intermediate levels of bioflocs (TSS between 400 and 600 mg L⁻¹) appear to be more suitable to superintensive culture of L. vannamei since they create factors propitious for maintaining the system’s productivity and stability     

The “self cleaning inherent gas denitrification-reactor” for nitrate elimination in RAS for pike perch (Sander lucioperca) production

Denitrification reactors have proven their functionality in commercial recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS). Nevertheless, clogging occurs due to the low hydraulic loads necessary to accomplish anoxic conditions for a successful denitrification process in RAS, which hampers the adjustment of stable working conditions within fixed bed denitrification reactors. Reactors working on the basis of activated sludge demand careful hydraulic control and/or complex configurations for sludge retention.To develop a low-maintenance denitrification reactor, an enclosed moving bed filter, driven by recirculation of the inherent, oxygen poor gas was designed. A Self cleaning Inherent gas Denitrification reactor (SID-reactor) of 0.65 m³, which offered a moving bed volume of 0.39 m³ was connected with a RAS of semi-industrial scale for pike perch (Sander lucioperca) production. This species indicates suboptimal environmental conditions (as e.g. NO₃-N concentrations above approximately 68 mg l⁻¹) by prompt reduction of the feed intake. In different experimental series, the SID-reactor was operated with denatured ethanol, methanol, acetic acid or glycerin as carbon sources and changing operational modes.Clogging was prevented by a 40 second inherent gas recirculation twice an hour, which provided continuous, maintenance free operation with marginal energy demand. With inlet (RAS) and outlet NO₃-N concentrations in the range of 49 mg l⁻¹ and 12 mg l⁻¹, mean denitrification rates of 199 g to 235 g NO₃-N per m³ moving bed volume and day were determined for all tested carbon sources. Negative effects on the feed intake of the reared pike perch were detected with all carbon sources except methanol. Changing the mode of operation to continuous circulation of the filter bed at inlet NO₃-N concentrations of 26 mg l⁻¹, the denitrification performance reached 451 g NO₃-N per m³ moving bed volume and day. The SID-reactor allowed for the reduction of freshwater exchange in the pike perch RAS from 600 l to 70 l (−88%) and the sodium bicarbonate buffer from 182 g to 31 g (−83%) per kg of administered food. The easy and reliable operation of the SID-reactor could help to establish controlled denitrification as a routine purification step in RAS.     

Impact of ozonation and residual ozone-produced oxidants on the nitrification performance of moving-bed biofilters from marine recirculating aquaculture systems

In marine recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) ozone is often used in combination with biofiltration for the improvement of process water quality. Especially for disinfection purposes ozone residuals are required, that lead to a fast formation of secondary oxidants in seawater, summed up as ozone-produced oxidants (OPO). We studied the impact of OPO on nitrifying biofilter bacteria in a series of laboratory batch experiments by exposing (i) cell suspensions of the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) Nitrosomonas marina strain 22 and the nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) Nitrospira strain Ecomares 2.1, (ii) a pure culture of the NOB Nitrospira strain immobilized on biocarriers, as well as (iii) a heterogeneous biofilm culture settled on biocarriers from a marine RAS for 1 h to different OPO concentrations up to 0.6 mg/l chlorine equivalent. Subsequent activity tests detected a negative linear correlation between OPO concentration and nitrifying activity of suspended pure cultures. Immobilization on biocarriers increased the tolerance of AOB and NOB dramatically, suggesting the biofilm matrix to be highly protective against OPO. Furthermore, we investigated the chronic effect of moderate ozonation at OPO concentrations of 0, 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 mg/l chlorine equivalent on biofilter performance in a 21 d exposure experiment using 12 experimental RAS, stocked with tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Chronic exposure experiments could not reveal any harmful impact on biofilter performance for OPO concentrations up to 0.15 mg/l, even at continuous exposure. Surprisingly, nitrifying activity was enhanced at all OPO concentrations compared to the control without ozonation, suggesting moderate ozonation to promote biological nitrification. It can be concluded that rather health, welfare and performance of most cultivated fish species are the limiting factors for ozone dosage than nitrification performance of biofilters. The results may further have practical implications in relation to design and operational strategy of water treatment processes in RAS and might thus contribute to the optimization of an effective and safe treatment combination of biofiltration and ozonation.     

Comparing clear-water RAS and biofloc systems: Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) production,water quality,and biofloc nutritional contributions estimated using stable isotopes

Indoor shrimp aquaculture systems can be used to produce fresh, never-frozen, quality shrimp near metropolitan seafood markets regardless of season and climate. However, questions still remain regarding what type of production system is best suited to maximize indoor production. In this project, two types of systems were compared: clear-water (CW) RAS and biofloc (BF) systems. Three, 1.36 m³ tanks were assigned to each of the two treatments; CW tanks had external settling chambers, two foam fractionators, and external biofilters, all operated continuously. BF tanks had settling chambers and one foam fractionator which were operated as needed to control solids accumulation. Shrimp weighing 0.42 g were stocked in all tanks at 250 m⁻³ and grown for 55 days. Ammonia and pH levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the CW treatment, while nitrite, nitrate, and turbidity were all significantly higher in the BF treatment, although all parameters remained within acceptable ranges for shrimp growth. Shrimp mean harvest weight was significantly higher, biomass (kg m⁻³) was significantly greater, and FCR was significantly lower in the CW treatment; there were no significant differences in survival between treatments. Isotope levels indicated that shrimp in the BF treatment obtained a portion of the C (18-60%) and N (1-18%) in their tissues from biofloc material; however, this effect did not positively influence production in that treatment. By nearly eliminating solids from the water and using an external biofilter, substantially better water quality was maintained in the CW systems, which may have been a major contributor to the improved shrimp production in that treatment.