Identification and quantification of anthocyanins in different coloured cultivars of ornamental kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC)

Anthocyanins are responsible for the colour of many fruits, vegetables, flowers, and coloured-leaved trees. Ornamental kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC) is widely cultivated for its colourful inner leaves. To investigate the relationship between the degree of colouration and anthocyanin distribution, content, and composition in ornamental kale, the authors studied the pigment characteristics of five cultivars with different coloured leaves (white, pink, red, purple, and purple-black). Microscopy observation, spectrophotometer, and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis of fresh inner leaves revealed that pink, red, and purple colourations were associated with high levels of anthocyanin, while purple-black was the result of the combination of anthocyanins and chlorophyll. In the coloured cultivars, anthocyanins were abundant mainly in the first and second cell layers below the epidermis in both the hypocotyls and inner leaves. No anthocyanin was found in the white-leaved phenotype cultivar. Anthocyanin content increased as leaf colour deepened from pink, red, to purple cultivars, which had little chlorophyll and carotenoid. The authors identified eight anthocyanins in the four coloured cultivars, including one non-acylated, four monoacylated, and three diacylated cyanidin glycosides. Cyanidin-3-(sinapoyl)(feruloyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside was the most abundant anthocyanin in the four coloured cultivars followed by cyanidin-3-(sinapoyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside. The analysis of anthocyanin accumulation characterisation provides important information on evaluating colouration patterns in coloured plants, and will be helpful for breeding desired leaf colours in ornamental kale.     

Analysis of petal anthocyanins to investigate coloration mechanism in herbaceous peony cultivars

Petal coloration and anthocyanin compositions of 41 herbaceous peony cultivars were analyzed. Anthocyanins were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC–ESI-MSⁿ) coupled with photodiode array detection (DAD). Peonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pn3G5G), pelargonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pg3G5G), cyanidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside (Cy3G5G), peonidin-3-O-glucoside (Pn3G), and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (Cy3G) were the five major anthocyanins in herbaceous peony cultivars. Deep purple or reddish purple cultivars contained 4–5 anthocyanins, whereas pink cultivars only contained Cy3G5G and Pn3G5G, and their contents were much lower than those of purple cultivars. According to the chemical structures of three anthocyanidins in association with petal coloration, flowers were classified into three phenotypes: 1. “Pn, Cy, and Pg” (all purple flowers including two pink flowers); 2. “Pn, Cy” (pink flowers); 3 “Pn” (light pink and white flowers). The coloration mechanisms of cultivars with the pink and purple flowers were quite different. Correlations between lightness (L*) and chroma (C*), chromatic component a* and total anthocyanins (TA) value, a* and co-pigmentation index (CI) showed opposite tendencies, whereas L* and TA showed the same tendency in each group. High contents of Pn3G5G and Pg3G5G may responsible for the purple coloration of herbaceous peony cultivars.     

The evaporative cooling effects of overtree microsprinkler irrigation on ‘Mondial Gala’ apples

Microsprinkler irrigation for evaporative cooling of ‘Mondial Gala’ apples (Malus x domestica Borkh.) was evaluated over a 3-year period in Lleida (NE Spain). Cooling irrigation was applied continuously for 2 h on a daily basis for 25–30 days prior to commercial harvest. Three treatments were evaluated: (1) control without overtree microsprinkler irrigation; (2) microsprinkler irrigation applied at sunset; (3) microsprinkler irrigation applied at mid-day (year 2) or at sunrise (year 3). Fruit and orchard temperature were significantly reduced by cooling irrigation, especially when applied at mid-day and at sunset. Fruit colour, as measured with a Minolta CR-200 portable triestimulus colourimeter using the CIE [1976] L*a*b* system, and anthocyanin concentration were significantly affected by both the cooling irrigation and the weather of each specific year. The years 1998 and 1999 were warm years typical of the region and cooled fruits had better colour than in the control. In 1997, on the other hand, low temperatures and rainfall prior to harvest masked the effects of cooling irrigation on fruit colour and quality parameters. Microsprinkler irrigation, especially when applied at sunset, increased the red colour, providing greater surface colouration and higher anthocyanin content on both sides of the fruit. A linear regression of anthocyanin content on L*, a*/b* ratio and hue angle provided R² values of 0.58, 0.52 and 0.58, respectively. These values are low for estimating fruit anthocyanin content in situ from chromaticity values. Based on the colour required to meet EU grade standards, 13–22% more fruits were harvested at first pick from trees receiving cooling irrigation than from the control.Fruit firmness, fruit size, and soluble solid concentration (SSC) were all increased by cooling irrigation, though the extent to which this occurred varied from season to season. Significantly greater values were observed for cooled fruits than the control in 1998 and 1999 but not in 1997. On the other hand, titratable acidity (TA) did not appear to be consistently affected by evaporative cooling. The economical analysis evidences the interest of cooling, due mainly to increase of fruit colour, especially when the same system is used for both purposes, frost protection and cooling.     

Delayed harvest improves red blush development and quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple

The poor red blush development on ‘Cripps Pink’ (Malus x domestica Borkh.) apple fruit at commercial maturity (CM) reduces the economic return to apple growers in warmer regions of the world. The effects of delayed harvest maturity up to 6 weeks following CM on the development of red blush and fruit quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple were investigated at two locations in Western Australia during 2003 and 2004. The red blush, export-grade fruit, total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, and epicatechin of apple fruit skin tissues increased with advancement of harvest maturity at both locations in both years, whereas hue angle, concentration of phloridzin, fruit firmness, and titratable acidity (TA) of apple fruit tissues decreased with delayed harvest. The internal ethylene concentration was elevated with the delayed harvest. The concentrations of quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-arabinoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, and quercetin 3-glucoside increased up to 2 weeks following CM, and then declined in 2003 at both locations and at Perth Hills in 2004. Delayed harvest resulted in improved development of red blush on the fruit surface, accumulation of total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin, and quercetin glycosides in fruit skin, SSC:TA ratio and reduced fruit firmness possibly due to the increased ethylene production.     

蝴蝶石斛兰花色表型及类黄酮成分分析

 利用分光色差计测定了不同颜色蝴蝶石斛兰品种的花色表型,采用高效液相色谱-质谱联用技术检测花朵中类黄酮色素的组成,探讨花色表型与所含类黄酮含量之间的关系。结果表明,蝴蝶石斛兰品种花色主要分布在紫红色和粉红色区域,且唇瓣颜色比花瓣和萼片暗。花色与类黄酮含量之间存在着线性关系,而花青素苷是影响蝴蝶石斛兰花色的主要因素：总花青素苷含量与花色的明度L^*值和色相b^*值以及色相角h值负相关,与色相a^*值正相关。从蝴蝶石斛兰花朵中共检测出28种花青素苷（均为酰基化的矢车菊素–3,7,3’–三葡萄糖苷）和19种黄酮醇苷（苷元有槲皮素、山奈酚和异鼠李素3种）,由此推测了蝴蝶石斛兰品种花中的类黄酮代谢途径。     

Composition and properties of purified phenolics preparations obtained from an extract of industrial blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) pomace

Summary

An extract obtained from industrial blackcurrant pomace was purified and fractionated on an RP C18 column, resulting in three phenolics preparations of different composition. The phenolics in the preparations were quantified by HPLC, their anti-oxidant capacity was determined, and the preparations were subjected to HPLC-MS analysis in order to identify the bioactive compounds present. The purified preparations selected for study were an anthocyanin-rich preparation, a myricetin and quercetin glycosides-containing preparation, and an aglycon-containing preparation. All three preparations were characterised by having a high content of polyphenols. The anthocyanin-rich preparation was the most concentrated in polyphenols [> 50% (w/w)], followed by the aglycon-containing preparation [> 20% (w/w)], and finally the glycosides-containing preparation [> 9% (w/w)]. The preparations were also characterised by their high anti-oxidant capacity, which was > 3,100 µM TEAC g^?1 (TEAC = Trolox Equivalent Anti-oxidant Capacity) for all preparations. The HPLC-MS study confirmed that the anthocyanin-rich preparation was composed of the following anthocyanins: delphinidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-rutinoside. The aglycon preparation contained four aglycons, of which myricetin and quercetin were predominant, and kaempferol and isorhamnetin were present in lower amounts. The glycosides-containing preparation was found to be the most interesting, since it contained myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin glycosides. Myricetin and quercetin galactosides were also detected in blackcurrant extract for the first time. Moreover, the presence of nitrile-containing compounds, two acylated anthocyanins, and one auron-type compound was detected.     

Comparison of anthocyanins in non-blotches and blotches of the petals of Xibei tree peony

A comparison in non-blotches and blotches of 35 cultivars of Xibei tree peony was investigated to explore flower coloration of Xibei tree peony (the second cultivar group in Chinese tree peony). With high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis, six anthocyanins including peonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pn3G5G), peonidin 3-O-glucoside (Pn3G), cyanidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Cy3G5G), cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (Cy3G), pelargonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pg3G5G), and pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside (Pg3G) were detected in non-blotches and blotches of petals. Total anthocyanins (TA), total flavones and flavonols (TF), and the copigmentation index (CI) were also analyzed. Cyanidin-based glycosides, which accumulated abundantly at the basal petal, resulted in blotch formation. Some peculiar cultivars with only one kind of anthocyanins or without anthocyanins in non-blotches were found in this study. For example, ‘Feng Zi Xiu Se’, ‘Ou Duan Si Lian’, and ‘Xi Wang’ contained only Pn3G5G; ‘Bing Shan Cang Yu’ and ‘Jin Bo Dang Yang’ contained only Cy3G; while no anthocyanins were found in ‘Bing Shan Xue Lian’. Several cultivars were rich in Pg-based glycosides, such as ‘Ni Hong Huan Cai’, and ‘Ju Yuan Shao Nv’. These cultivars would be excellent parents for creating new cultivars with novel flower color in the future.     

Changes in kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala) carotenoid and chlorophyll pigment concentrations during leaf ontogeny

There has been recent market interest in “baby” salad greens. However, little information exists on the nutritional differences between immature “baby” greens and produce traditionally sold at the fully mature stage. Kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala D.C.) contains high levels of lutein and β-carotene, which possess important human health properties. Kale was grown in a controlled environment and pigments were measured in young (<1 week), immature (1–2 weeks), mature (2–3 weeks), fully developed (3–4 weeks) and senescing (>4 weeks) leaves using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Significant differences were observed for all pigments during leaf development. Pigment accumulation followed a quadratic trend, with maximums occurring between the 1st and 3rd week of leaf age. The highest concentrations of lutein measured 15.1 mg/100 g fresh mass and occurred in 1–2 week old leaves. The remaining pigments reached maximum levels at 2–3 weeks (β-carotene at 11.6 mg/100 g; chlorophyll a at 251.4 mg/100 g; and chlorophyll b at 56.9 mg/100 g fresh mass). Mature fully expanded kale leaves accumulated higher carotenoid concentrations than immature or “baby” leaves, with senescent leaves having the lowest carotenoid concentrations. Harvesting kale leaves at a mature stage of development resulted in maximum carotenoid values. Cultural management practices that increase carotenoid concentrations would be expected to improve nutritional quality for fresh markets.     

发根农杆菌介导的荔枝LcMYB1转化烟草叶片的研究

利用荔枝果皮花青苷生物合成的关键调节基因LcMYB1为标记，构建植物表达载体pBA002-LcMYB1，电转法转入发根农杆菌A4菌株，通过叶盘法转化烟草K326。结果表明，烟草叶片侵染一周后长出白色的毛状根，约3周后部分毛状根逐渐变成红色，毛状根诱导率为100%，红色毛状根诱导率为19.9%。当筛选培养基中添加5 mg ? L-1 Basta，毛状根诱导率降低为33.3%，但红色毛状根诱导率提高到75%。高效液相色谱分析表明，红色毛状根中积累矢车菊素–3–葡萄糖苷和矢车菊素–3–芸香糖苷，PCR检测证实红色毛状根是由LcMYB1的转入引起的。实时荧光定量PCR表明转LcMYB1可以诱导烟草毛状根中花青苷生物合成相关的结构基因和调节基因表达。     

红肉猕猴桃花色苷组成及浸提研究

以全红河南猕猴桃(Actinidia arguta var.henanensis)为试材,利用高效液相色谱(HPLC)和高效液相色谱-三重四级杆质谱联用技术(HPLC-MS-MS)定性定量分析其花色苷组分,并运用正交试验优化通常情况下决定花色苷提取效果的甲酸强度、料液比、超声时间等3个重要工艺参数。结果表明,红肉猕猴桃果实中有5种花色苷,分别是未知矢车菊素(Cy.)、矢车菊素-3-O-木糖(1-2)-半乳糖苷(Cy-xyl.gal.)、矢车菊素-3-O-半乳糖苷(Cy-gal.)、飞燕草-3-O-木糖(1-2)-半乳糖苷(Dp-xyl.gal.)和飞燕草-3-O-半乳糖苷(Dp-gal.)。每种花色苷浸提值达到最高时对应的甲酸、料液比、超声时间不同。     

Anthocyanins from ornamental flowers of red frangipani, Plumeria rubra

Two anthocyanins were isolated from ornamental reddish flowers of Plumeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae) by a combination of chromatographic techniques. Their structures were elucidated mainly by the use of homo- and heteronuclear nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and high-resolution electrospray mass spectrometry. The anthocyanin cyanidin 3-O-β-(2″-glucopyranosyl-O-β-galactopyranoside) (75%), has previously been isolated only from Cornus suecica (Cornaceae) fruits, while the other (20%) was identified as cyanidin-3-O-β-galactopyranoside. This is the first report of the anthocyanins responsible for the attractive colours of the flowers of red frangipani.     

Current status of commercial Calibrachoa cultivars as assessed by morphology and other traits

To study the morphological diversity of the popular ornamental crop Calibrachoa, traded since the 1990s, floral and vegetative characters of 91 commercial cultivars were compared to those of natural species. Floral colours were classified according to the ISCC-NBS system and the CIE LAB system. The numerical data obtained by measuring 19 floral and vegetative characters was tested with principal component (PC) analysis. Floral colour classes of commercial cultivars were divided into 37 groups according the ISCC-NBS system, whereas those of natural species were divided into 9 groups. These tendencies were readily observable in the scatter diagrams of the a* vs. b* values and the C* vs. L* values. As the result of PC analysis, six PCs were obtained. For PC4, which negatively correlated with the degree of nocturnal corolla limb closure, the majority of natural species showed negative scores whereas the majority of cultivars had positive PC4 scores. In terms of PC2 (flower size), PC3 (growth form), PC5 (floral shape) and PC6 (leaf shape), natural species were dispersed in a range wider than the cultivars. These results suggest that Calibrachoa cultivars possess more highly variable floral colour than natural species, and breeding programmes to diversify the floral colour seem to have progressed rapidly. The tendency of natural species to close the corolla limb toward evening has been removed almost completely from the cultivars. The floral size, growth form, floral shape and leaf shape of the cultivars were rather uniform compared to those of natural species.     

贴梗海棠花青苷组成及其与花色的关系

 以贴梗海棠[Chaenomeles speciosa（Sweet）Nakai]不同花色的24份种质为材料,调查了其花色在CIE L*a*b*表色系的分布状况,利用高效液相色谱—光电二极管阵列检测（HPLC–DAD）和高效液相色谱—电喷雾离子化—多级质谱联用技术（HPLC–ESI–MSn）定性定量分析其花青苷组分,运用多元线性回归方法分析了花色与花青苷组成之间的关系。结果表明,贴梗海棠花瓣中共含有6种花青苷,分别是矢车菊素–3–O–半乳糖苷（Cy3Ga）、矢车菊素–3–O–葡萄糖苷、天竺葵素–3–O–半乳糖苷、天竺葵素–3–O–（半乳糖葡萄糖苷）[Pg3（Ga-G）]、矢车菊素–3–O–（半乳糖葡萄糖苷）以及矢车菊素–3–O–琥珀酸–阿拉伯糖苷（Cy3SucAra）。Cy3SucAra为首次发现。其中,Cy3Ga、Pg3（Ga-G）和Cy3SucAra是决定贴梗海棠花色的主要色素,这3种色素含量的增加导致花色显著变红。基于花青苷的组成信息,探讨了贴梗海棠的花色改良和蓝色花创制的策略。     

Identification of Petunia hybrida cultivars that diurnally emit floral fragrances

In order to identify genetic resources for breeding fragrant petunias for use as bedding plants, volatile compounds released by day from the flowers of 40 commercial Petunia hybrida cultivars were analyzed using a solid-phase micro-extraction technique coupled with GC–MS. The three cultivars with solid deep-blue flowers that accumulate malvidin in corollas with high tissue pH were found to emit abundant iso-eugenol as the principal floral fragrance. Several other cultivars that emitted considerable amounts of methylbenzoate and/or benzylbenzoate from the flower were also identified. Association between the floral fragrance and the other floral traits such as floral anthocyanin composition and corolla-tissue pH was discussed.     

Some Physicochemical Characteristics,Bioactive Content and Antioxidant Characteristics of Non-Sprayed Barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) Fruits from Turkey

Increasing consumer demands for indigenous, non-sprayed with pesticides and less-known or “forgotten” fruits necessitate knowledge on their breeding, cultivation, biochemical content, harvesting and marketing. Anatolia is rich for wild edible fruit species and barberry is abundant throughout Anatolia. The aim of this study was to determine some important physicochemical characteristics, bioactive content and antioxidant capacity of fruits from nineteen promising barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) genotypes grown in the Coruh valley, Northeastern Anatolia. The results indicated genotype-specific differences for most of the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant capacity and the content of some bioactive compounds. Fruit mass ranged from 0.073 (‘Coruh-7’) to 0.267 g (‘Coruh-11’). Total phenolic content ranged from 2532 (‘Coruh-’) to 3719 mg GAE per liter fruit juice (‘Coruh-11’). The genotype ‘Coruh-12’ had the highest total monomeric anthocyanin content (1004 mg per liter fruit juice) as cyanidin-3-glucoside. The highest total antioxidant capacity was observed in fruits of ‘Coruh-8’ and ‘Coruh-9’ genotypes with all three antioxidant-determining methods. We conclude that the barberry fruits represent a good source of bioactive phytochemicals because of their high phenolic and anthocyanin contents.     

Seasonal changes in CO2 assimilation in leaves of five major Greek olive cultivars

Leaf CO₂ assimilation rate, stomatal conductance (g_s), internal CO₂ concentration (C_i), chlorophyll (a + b) content, specific leaf weight (SLW) and stomatal density were measured during the season, under field conditions, for five major Greek olive cultivars, ‘Koroneiki’, ‘Megaritiki’, ‘Konservolia’, ‘Lianolia Kerkiras’, and ‘Kalamon’, with different morphological and agronomic characteristics and diverse genetic background. Measurements were taken from current-season and 1-year-old leaves, and from fruiting and vegetative shoots, throughout the season, from March to November in years 2001 and 2002. CO₂ assimilation rates showed a substantial seasonal variation, similar in all cultivars, with higher values during spring and autumn and lower values during summer and late autumn. Stomatal conductance (g_s) followed similar trends to leaf CO₂ assimilation rates, increasing from March to July, following by a decrease during August and increasing again in autumn. ‘Koroneiki’ had the highest leaf CO₂ assimilation rate and g_s values (21 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 0.45 mol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively) while ‘Lianolia Kerkiras’ and ‘Kalamon’ showed the lowest leaf CO₂ assimilation rate and g_s values (13–14 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 0.22 mol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively). One-year-old leaves had significantly higher leaf CO₂ assimilation rate than current-season leaves from April to June, for all cultivars. From August and then, leaf CO₂ assimilation rate in current-season leaves was higher than in 1-year-old leaves. There were no significant differences in leaf CO₂ assimilation rate between fruiting and vegetative shoots. Total chlorophyll (a + b) content increased with leaf age in current-season leaves. In 1-year-old leaves chlorophyll content increased in spring, then started to decrease and increased slightly again late in the season. Chlorophyll content was higher in 1-year-old leaves than in current-season leaves throughout the season. Total specific leaf weight (SLW) increased throughout the season for all cultivars. Stomatal density in lower leaf surface was lowest for ‘Koroneiki’ (399 mm⁻²) and highest for ‘Megaritiki’ (550 mm⁻²). Our results showed differences in leaf CO₂ assimilation rate among the five different olive cultivars, with a diverse genetic background, ranging from 12 to 21 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. From the five cultivars examined, ‘Koroneiki’, a drought resistant cultivar, performed better and was able to maintain higher leaf CO₂ assimilation rate, even under high air vapor pressure deficit. All cultivars had a pronounced seasonal variation in leaf CO₂ assimilation rate, affected by date of the year, depending on ambient conditions. The high temperatures and high air vapor pressure deficit occurring during summer caused a reduction in leaf CO₂ assimilation rate in all cultivars. Leaf CO₂ assimilation rate was also affected by leaf age for all cultivars, with old leaves having significantly higher leaf CO₂ assimilation rate than young leaves early in the season.     

Antioxidant capacity and phytochemical properties of cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) genotypes in Iran

Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) is a naturally growing dogwood species in Arasbaran (East Azerbaijan, Iran). Antioxidant capacity, total anthocyanins, total phenols, ascorbic acid and total flavnoids of a number of selected cornelian cherry genotypes were investigated. The total phenolic and antioxidant activity of methanol extract of cornelian cherry fruits were determined according to Folin–Ciocalteu and DPPH method, respectively. The range of ascorbic acid content of genotypes was 183.25–299.5 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). Genotype C24 had the highest total antioxidant capacity (82.37) and total phenolic (2695.75 mg galic acid per 100 g FW basis). The highest total anthocyanin was observed in C27 genotype (442.11 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents/100 g FW). This genotype also had the highest total flavonoid (669 mg catechin per 100 g FW basis). There are linear relationships between the antioxidant capacities with total phenols, total flavonoid and ascorbic acid. But, No statistically significant correlation was observed between antioxidant activity and total anthocyanins. According to Path analysis, the highest direct effect on antioxidant was observed in total flavonoid (0.38). The present study demonstrates the potential of certain cornelian cherry genotypes, notably C24 and C27, for improvement of nutritional value through germplasm enhancement programs.     

Anthocyanins from flowers of Hippeastrum cultivars

The anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-O-(6″-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-β-glucopyranoside) (1) and pelargonidin 3-O-(6″-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-β-glucopyranoside) (2), were isolated from the ornamental flowers of a Ugandan Hippeastrum cultivar by a combination of chromatographic techniques, and their structures were elucidated mainly by the use of homo- and heteronuclear nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and electrospray mass spectrometry. The same anthocyanins were found in six different Hippeastrum cultivars purchased in Norway. However, the absolute amount of the anthocyanins (0.08–1.79 mg/g, fresh weight) and the relative proportions of the individual anthocyanins varied from cultivar to cultivar (13.2–96.5% of 1). The colours of the fresh petals of the three cultivars ‘Red Lion’, ‘Royal Velvet’ and ‘Liberty’ were described by the CIELab coordinates L^* (lightness), C^* (chroma) and h_ab (hue angles). All the cultivars showed hue angles corresponding to scarlet nuances (h_ab = 22–35°), with the highest value in ‘Red Lion’. The most reddish petals (in ‘Royal Velvet’) contained the highest relative proportion of 1. Thus, the in vivo colours of these cultivars seem to be correlated with the relative proportions of individual anthocyanin in the petals.     

Pathogenesis-related (PR)-proteins: Chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase in defense mechanism against malformation in mango (Mangifera indica L.)

Mango, the king of fruits in India is cultivated commercially in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Undoubtedly, mango malformation is a serious disease affecting mango production in India and many other countries around the world. It is now shown that the malady is inflicted by Fusarium, a fungus, and also that the plants have the capacity to suppress or reduce pathogen attack by inducing the synthesis of antimicrobial metabolites such as chitinase and/or the synthesis of lignin, both of which may enhance plant defense system. The present study was aimed at investigating the variability and relationship between activities of chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase and content of lignin in the leaves using 12 mango cultivars with the different degree of resistance to floral malformation. Results revealed that the activity of chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase in the leaves were significantly high in mango cultivars resistant to malformation (r = −0.90 and r = −0.91, respectively) during the flowering period, whereas lignin content did not show a significant correlation with malformation. The highest activity of chitinase (1.977–2.011 units) and β-1,3-glucanase (80.54–82.06 units) was recorded in resistant mango cultivars Bhadauran and Elaichi. In contrast, these activities were less than 1.010 and 25.21 respectively in highly susceptible mango cultivars such as Amrapali, Eldon and Neelum. Lignin content was highest in resistant cultivar Bhadauran, but it did not show significant relation to the malformation intensity of the cultivars. Thus, leaf chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase may be contributing towards resistance to malformation in mango and that the relative activities of these enzymes can be used as a criterion to predict and screen the mango germplasm and cultivars for resistance to floral malformation.