A Cross‐Sectional Study Examining Campylobacter and Other Zoonotic Enteric Pathogens in Dogs that Frequent Dog Parks in Three Cities in South‐Western Ontario and Risk Factors for Shedding of Campylobacter spp.

An estimated 6 million pet dogs live in Canadian households with the potential to transmit zoonotic pathogens to humans. Dogs have been identified as carriers of Salmonella, Giardia and Campylobacter spp., particularly Campylobacter upsaliensis, but little is known about the prevalence and risk factors for these pathogens in pet dogs that visit dog parks. This study examined the prevalence of these organisms in the faeces of dogs visiting dog parks in three cities in south‐western Ontario, as well as risk factors for shedding Campylobacter spp. and C. upsaliensis. From May to August 2009, canine faecal samples were collected at ten dog parks in the cities of Guelph and Kitchener‐Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Owners were asked to complete a questionnaire related to pet characteristics and management factors including age, diet and activities in which the dog participates. Faecal samples were collected from 251 dogs, and 189 questionnaires were completed. Salmonella, Giardia and Campylobacter spp. were present in 1.2%, 6.4% and 43.0% of faecal samples, respectively. Of the Campylobacter spp. detected, 86.1% were C. upsaliensis, 13% were C. jejuni and 0.9% were C. coli. Statistically significant sparing factors associated with the shedding of Campylobacter spp. included the feeding of a commercial dry diet and the dog's exposure to compost. Age of dog had a quadratic effect, with young dogs and senior dogs having an increased probability of shedding Campylobacter spp. compared with adult dogs. The only statistically significant risk factor for shedding C. upsaliensis was outdoor water access including lakes and ditches, while dogs >1 year old were at a lower risk than young dogs. Understanding the pet‐related risk factors for Campylobacter spp. and C. upsaliensis shedding in dogs may help in the development of awareness and management strategies to potentially reduce the risk of transmitting this pathogen from dogs to humans.     

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken Meat of Estonian,Latvian and Lithuanian Origin at Estonian Retail Level and from Patients with Severe Enteric Infections in Estonia

The resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. isolated from retail broiler chicken meat originating either from Estonia, Lithuania or Latvia collected in Estonia were determined. Additionally, in collaboration with the laboratories of several Estonian hospitals, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns were determined for Campylobacter isolates from patients with severe Campylobacter enteric infections. The isolates were identified at the species level by the PCR method. Respectively, 88.8% of the isolates were C. jejuni, and 11.2% were C. coli. In total, 126 Campylobacter isolates of broiler chicken meat and human origin were tested for minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) with the broth microdilution VetMIC^TH method (National Veterinary Institute; Uppsala, Sweden) for a total of six antimicrobials. Resistance to one or more antimicrobials was detected in 62 (63.3%) of Campylobacter broiler chicken meat isolates and in 20 (71.4%) of human‐origin isolates. Large proportions of the broiler chicken meat isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin (60.2%). Multidrug resistance (i.e. to three or more unrelated antimicrobials) was detected in five (5.1%) C. jejuni isolates. Among the human isolates, 20 (71.4%) were resistant to fluoroquinolones, and two (7.1%) C. jejuni isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. The chicken meat isolates of Estonian origin were the most susceptible. However, a high proportion of fluoroquinolone‐resistant C. jejuni isolates were found in Latvian and Lithuanian products. The results of this study indicate that the problems caused by the inappropriate use of antimicrobials extend beyond the country in which a food originates; therefore, both domestic and international interventions and agreements are required to implement common policies on antimicrobial usage and to minimize the emergence of Campylobacter drug resistance.     

Sensitivity of Direct Culture,Enrichment and PCR for Detection of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli in Broiler Flocks at Slaughter

Broiler chicken flocks are a significant source of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli that result in the major public health problem of campylobacteriosis. Accurate estimates of the prevalence of both C. coli and C. jejuni in flocks would enhance epidemiological understanding, risk assessment and control options. This study combined results from a panel of 10 detection tests (direct culture, enrichment and PCR) on caecal samples from flocks at slaughter. A parallel interpretation approach was used to determine the presence of Campylobacter spp. and for C. jejuni and C. coli individually. The sample was considered positive if at least one method detected the target and this interpretation was taken to represent a ‘proxy gold standard’ for detection in the absence of a gold standard reference test. The sensitivity of each individual method to detect Campylobacter spp., C. jejuni and C. coli was then estimated relative to the proxy gold standard. Enrichment in adapted Exeter broth (deficient in polymyxin B) with a resuscitation step was 100% sensitive, whilst direct culture on modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA) was highly sensitive (97.9%). Enrichment methods using Preston broth and Bolton broth were significantly less sensitive. Enrichment in Exeter broth promoted the recovery of C. jejuni, whilst enrichment in Bolton broth favoured C. coli. A RT‐PCR detection test could identify 80% of flocks that were co‐colonised with both species. This study found that 76.3% (n = 127) of flocks were colonised with Campylobacter spp. The majority (95.9%) of Campylobacter‐positive flocks were colonised with C. jejuni; however, approximately one‐third of positive flocks were simultaneously colonised with both C. jejuni and C. coli. The findings highlight the impact of different detection methodologies on the accuracy of the estimated incidence of both C. jejuni and C. coli entering the abattoir within broiler flocks and the associated public health risks.     

An investigation of obligate and facultative anaerobes in bovine mastitis

Abstract

AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and C. jejuni in dog faecal material collected from dog walkways in the city of Palmerston North, New Zealand, and to characterise the C. jejuni isolates by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and porA and flaA antigen gene typing.

METHODS: A total of 355 fresh samples of dogs faeces were collected from bins provided for the disposal of dog faeces in 10 walkways in Palmerston North, New Zealand, between August 2008–July 2009. Presumptive Campylobacter colonies, cultured on modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate plates, were screened for genus Campylobacter and C. jejuni by PCR. The C. jejuni isolates were subsequently characterised by MLST and porA and flaA typing, and C. jejuni sequence types (ST) were assigned.

RESULTS: Of the 355 samples collected, 72 (20 (95% CI=16–25)%) were positive for Campylobacter spp. and 22 (6 (95% CI=4–9)%) were positive for C. jejuni. Of the 22 C. jejuni isolates, 19 were fully typed by MLST. Ten isolates were assigned to the clonal complex ST-45 and three to ST-52. The allelic combinations of ST-45/flaA 21/porA 44 (n=3), ST-45/flaA 22/porA 53 (n=3) and ST-52/ flaA 57/porA 905 (n=3) were most frequent.

CONCLUSIONS: The successful isolation of C. jejuni from canine faecal samples collected from faecal bins provides evidence that Campylobacter spp. may survive outside the host for at least several hours despite requiring fastidious growth conditions in culture. The results show that dogs carry C. jejuni genotypes (ST-45, ST-50, ST-52 and ST-696) that have been reported in human clinical cases.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Although these results do not provide any evidence either for the direction of infection or for dogs being a potential risk factor for human campylobacteriosis, dog owners are advised to practice good hygiene with respect to their pets to reduce potential exposure to infection.     

Comparison of Cape Town and Skirrow's <Emphasis Type="Italic">Campylobacter</Emphasis> isolation protocols in humans and broilers in Morogoro,Tanzania

Comparison of Cape Town and Skirrow's protocols used in isolation of Campylobacter in humans and broilers was carried out in a cross-sectional study in Morogoro, Tanzania. A total of 176 and 158 human stool and broiler intestinal samples were collected, respectively. While human stool samples were collected from selected health centers, broiler intestinal samples were obtained from selected farms and chicken markets. Samples were inoculated and cultured in duplicate using two protocols and prevalence of Campylobacter were established. In humans, the prevalence of Campylobacter isolates was significantly higher (P < 0.001) (21.6%) with Cape Town protocol than Skirrow's method (9.1%). Similarly, a higher prevalence (P < 0.05) in broilers was recorded in Cape Town protocol (77.8%) than Skirrow's method (66.5%). There was a moderate (0.53) Kappa test of agreement between Skirrow's and Cape Town protocols for human samples and substantial agreement (0.72) for broiler samples. This demonstrates that Cape Town protocol is superior over the Skirrow's protocol in Campylobacter isolation. Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter lari were the Campylobacter spp. isolated. In humans, C. jejuni accounted for 92.1% and 87.5% of all positive samples with Cape Town and Skirrow's protocols, respectively. In broilers, C. jejuni was isolated at 91.1% and 92.5% of all species obtained with Cape Town and Skirrow's protocols, respectively. This shows that C. jejuni is the common species that may be circulating from either broilers to humans or other animals and vice versa. The present study has introduced Cape Town protocol in Tanzania for Campylobacter isolation from human and animal samples, which is expected to improve the isolation of Campylobacter species. Cape Town protocol may also be a good alternative for use in routine isolation of Campylobacter.     

Isolation,identification and differentiation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Campylobacter</Emphasis> spp. using multiplex PCR assay from goats in Khartoum State,Sudan

The aim of this study was to identify and characterize thermophilic Campylobacter species in faecal samples from goats in Khartoum State, Sudan, by application of multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Campylobacteriosis is a zoonotic disease of global concern, and the organisms can be transmitted to human via food, water and through contact with farm animals and pets. There are five clinically related Campylobacter species: Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni). Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter lari, Campylobacter upsaliensis and Campylobacter fetus. Conventional cultural methods to diagnose campylobacteriosis are tedious and time consuming. Wide ranges of genes have been reported to be used for PCR-based identification of Campylobacter spp. We used a multiplex PCR assay to simultaneously detect genes from the major five clinically significant Campylobacter spp. The genes selected were hipO (hippuricase) and 23S rRNA from glyA (serine hydroxymethyl transferase) from each of C. jejuni. C. coli, C. lari, and C. upsaliensis; and sapB2 (surface layer protein) from C. fetus subsp. fetus. The assay was used to identify Campylobacter isolates recovered from 336 cultured faecal samples from goats in three localities in Khartoum State. C. coli was the most predominant isolate (234; 69.6%), followed by C. jejuni (19; 5.7%), C. upsaliensis (13; 3.9%), C. fetus subsp. fetus (7; 2.1%) and C. lari (6; 1.8%). Twenty-nine goats showed mixed infection with Campylobacter spp., 21 of which harbored two Campylobacter spp., while eight animals were infected with three species. Ten out of twelve goats that displayed diarrhea harbored C. coli only. C. coli, C. jejuni and C. upsaliensis showed significant variation with localities. The prevalence of C. coli was significantly higher (87; 25.9%) in goats from Omdurman, whereas C. jejuni and C. upsaliensis were significantly higher (11; 3.3%, 9; 2.7%) in goats from Khartoum. The multiplex PCR assay was found to be rapid and easy to perform and had a high sensitivity and specificity for characterizing the isolates, even in mixed cultures. The study demonstrated the significance of goats as reservoirs in the dissemination of Campylobacter spp. which could be considered as potential agent of caprine enteritis and abortion as well as contamination of the wider environment posing serious public health concern in Khartoum State.     

Prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter species in Swedish dogs and characterization of C. jejuni isolates

Background

The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence of Campylobacter species in Swedish dogs, to identify the species of the Campylobacter isolates and to genotype the C. jejuni isolates. Young and healthy dogs were targeted and the sampling was performed at 11 veterinary clinics throughout Sweden from October 2011 to October 2012. Faecal swab samples were collected and sent to the laboratory at the National Veterinary Institute (SVA) for isolation of Campylobacter, speciation and genotyping.

Results

Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 67 of the 180 sampled dogs which yields an overall prevalence of 37%. The most prevalent species of Campylobacter among the participating dogs was C. upsaliensis with 52 of the 67 identified isolates. A lower prevalence was observed for C. jejuni with seven identified isolates and one isolate was identified as C. helveticus. Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) was carried out on the seven C. jejuni isolates and all sequence types that were found are also commonly found in humans. The dogs were divided into three age groups; 1) under 12 months, 2) 12 to 23 months and 3) 24 months and older. The highest prevalence was found in the two younger age groups. Dogs shedding C. jejuni were between 3–12 months of age while dogs shedding C. upsaliensis were found in all ages.

Conclusions

The present investigation finds that Campylobacter spp. known to cause campylobacteriosis in humans are present in Swedish dogs. The results suggest an age predisposition where dogs under 2 years of age are more likely to shed Campylobacter spp. than older dogs. The most commonly isolated species was C. upsaliensis followed by C. jejuni, which was only detected in dogs up to 12 months of age. All C. jejuni isolates identified in the present study were of the same MLST types that have previously been described both in humans and in animals. The awareness of the Campylobacter risk of healthy young dogs may be an important way to reduce the transmission from dogs to infants, young children and immunocompromised adults.     

Combined Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli Rapid Testing and Molecular Epidemiology in Conventional Broiler Flocks

Campylobacter spp. are important causes of bacterial zoonosis, most often transmitted by contaminated poultry meat. From an epidemiological and risk assessment perspective, further knowledge should be obtained on Campylobacter prevalence and genotype distribution in primary production. Consequently, 15 Austrian broiler flocks were surveyed in summer for their thermophilic Campylobacter spp. contamination status. Chicken droppings, dust and drinking water samples were collected from each flock at three separate sampling periods. Isolates were confirmed by PCR and subtyped. We also compared three alternative methods (culture‐based enrichment in Bolton broth, culture‐independent real‐time PCR and a lateral‐flow test) for their applicability in chicken droppings. Twelve flocks were found to be positive for thermophilic Campylobacter spp. during the entire sampling period. Seven flocks (46.6%) were contaminated with both, C. jejuni and C. coli, five flocks harboured solely one species. We observed to a majority flock‐specific C. jejuni and C. coli genotypes, which dominated the respective flock. Flocks within a distance <2 km shared the same C. jejuni genotypes indicating a cross‐contamination event via the environment or personnel vectors. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of C. jejuni revealed that the majority of isolates were assigned to globally distributed clonal complexes or had a strong link to the human interface (CC ST‐446 and ST4373). The combination of techniques poses an advantage over risk assessment studies based on cultures alone, as, in the case of Campylobacter, occurrence of a high variety of genotypes might be present among a broiler flock. We suggest applying the lateral‐flow test under field conditions to identify ‘high‐shedding’ broiler flocks at the farm level. Consequently, poultry farmers and veterinarians could improve hygiene measurements and direct sanitation activities, especially during the thinning period. Ultimately, real‐time PCR could be applied to quantify Campylobacter spp. directly from chicken droppings and avoid non‐interpretable results achieved by culture‐dependent methods.     

Ciprofloxacin resistance among Campylobacter jejuni isolates obtained from shelter dogs in Texas

There are few epidemiologic studies on the shedding of Campylobacter among dogs in the United States, despite the potential public health implications. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of faecal Campylobacter shedding among Texas shelter dogs as detected by culture methods and to characterize the isolates by species and antimicrobial susceptibility. Using a cross‐sectional study design, faecal samples were collected from 185 dogs in six animal shelters throughout Texas between May and December 2014. Four culture methods were used to isolate Campylobacter from samples, and isolates were characterized. The prevalence of Campylobacter shedding was 45.4% (84/185; 95% CI, 38.1%–52.9%). Of 294 isolates from the 84 positive dogs, 26 (8.8%) isolates from seven dogs were identified as Campylobacter jejuni. Two of the isolates from one dog demonstrated resistance to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. Direct plating on mCCDA‐CAT agar without enrichment identified the highest number of positive dogs (62%; 52/84). Incidence of ciprofloxacin‐resistant Campylobacter infections among humans has increased over the last several years. Canine shedding of Campylobacter is a potential source of zoonotic transmission.     

Zoonotic Public Health Hazards in Backyard Chickens

Backyard poultry has become increasingly popular in industrialized countries. In addition to keeping chickens for eggs and meat, owners often treat the birds as pets. However, several pathogenic enteric bacteria have the potential for zoonotic transmission from poultry to humans but very little is known about the occurrence of zoonotic pathogens in backyard flocks. The occurrence and the antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes and enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. was studied in 51 voluntary backyard chicken farms in Finland during October 2012 and January 2013. Campylobacter isolates were further characterized by pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and the occurrence of ESBL/AmpC‐producing E. coli was investigated. The findings from this study indicate that backyard chickens are a reservoir of Campylobacter jejuni strains and a potential source of C. jejuni infection for humans. Backyard chickens can also carry L. monocytogenes, although their role as a primary reservoir is questionable. Campylobacter coli, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Salmonella enterica were only found sporadically in the faecal and environmental samples of backyard poultry in Finland. No Yersinia enterocolitica carrying the virulence plasmid was isolated. All pathogens were highly susceptible to most of the antimicrobials studied. Only a few AmpC‐ and no ESBL‐producing E. coli were found.     

High‐Level Ciprofloxacin‐Resistant Campylobacter jejuni Isolates Circulating in Humans and Animals in Incheon,Republic of Korea

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the major causative pathogens of outbreaks or sporadic cases of diarrhoeal diseases worldwide. In this study, we compared the phenotypic and genetic characteristics of C. jejuni isolates of human and food‐producing animal origins in Korea and examined the genetic relatedness between these two groups of isolates. Regardless of isolation source, all C. jejuni isolates harboured four virulence genes, cadF, cdtB, ciaB and racR, whereas the wlaN and virB11 genes were more frequently observed in human isolates. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that the majority of C. jejuni isolates displayed high‐level resistance to fluoroquinolone (95.2%) or tetracycline (76.2%) antibiotics, and 12.4% of isolates exhibited multidrug resistance (more than three classes of antibiotics tested). Pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of all Campylobacter isolates revealed 51 different SmaI‐PFGE patterns and six major clusters containing both human and animal isolates. These results indicate that genetically diverse strains of C. jejuni with antimicrobial drug‐resistance and virulence properties have prevailed in Incheon. Nevertheless, some particular populations continue to circulate within the community, providing the evidence for an epidemiological link of C. jejuni infections between humans and food‐producing animals. Therefore, the continued monitoring and surveillance of C. jejuni isolates of human and food‐producing animal origins are required for public health and food safety.     

Molecular and Statistical Analysis of Campylobacter spp. and Antimicrobial‐Resistant Campylobacter Carriage in Wildlife and Livestock from Ontario Farms

The objectives of this study were to (i) compare the carriage of Campylobacter and antimicrobial‐resistant Campylobacter among livestock and mammalian wildlife on Ontario farms, and (ii) investigate the potential sharing of Campylobacter subtypes between livestock and wildlife. Using data collected from a cross‐sectional study of 25 farms in 2010, we assessed associations, using mixed logistic regression models, between Campylobacter and antimicrobial‐resistant Campylobacter carriage and the following explanatory variables: animal species (beef, dairy, swine, raccoon, other), farm type (swine, beef, dairy), type of sample (livestock or wildlife) and Campylobacter species (jejuni, coli, other). Models included a random effect to account for clustering by farm where samples were collected. Samples were subtyped using a Campylobacter‐specific 40 gene comparative fingerprinting assay. A total of 92 livestock and 107 wildlife faecal samples were collected, and 72% and 27% tested positive for Campylobacter, respectively. Pooled faecal samples from livestock were significantly more likely to test positive for Campylobacter than wildlife samples. Relative to dairy cattle, pig samples were at significantly increased odds of testing positive for Campylobacter. The odds of isolating Campylobacter jejuni from beef cattle samples were significantly greater compared to dairy cattle and raccoon samples. Fifty unique subtypes of Campylobacter were identified, and only one subtype was found in both wildlife and livestock samples. Livestock Campylobacter isolates were significantly more likely to exhibit antimicrobial resistance (AMR) compared to wildlife Campylobacter isolates. Campylobacter jejuni was more likely to exhibit AMR when compared to C. coli. However, C. jejuni isolates were only resistant to tetracycline, and C.  coli isolates exhibited multidrug resistance patterns. Based on differences in prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and resistant Campylobacter between livestock and wildlife samples, and the lack of similarity in molecular subtypes and AMR patterns, we concluded that the sharing of Campylobacter species between livestock and mammalian wildlife was uncommon.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter from wild birds of prey in Spain

Wild birds have been identified as a relevant reservoir of Campylobacter spp., therefore, a potential source of infection in humans and domestic animals. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. on birds of prey in Spain. In addition, antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates were evaluated. A total of 689 specimens of 28 raptor species were analyzed, with a resulting individual prevalence of 7.5%. C. jejuni was the most frequently isolated species (88.5%), followed by C. coli and C. lari (3.8% each). The occurrence of Campylobacter was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in nocturnal birds of prey (15.3%), in spring season (12.2%) and in carnivorous species (9.4%). Isolates displayed a remarkable resistance to nalidixic acid (69.9%), ciprofloxacin (69.9%), and tetracycline (55.6%), and a low resistance to streptomycin (6.7%).Our findings highlight the importance of birds of prey as reservoirs of Campylobacter strains and their significant role as carriers of antimicrobial resistance.     

Genotypes and antibiotic resistance of canine Campylobacter jejuni isolates

Campylobacter jejuni is the most important cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in humans. It is a commensal in many wild and domestic animals, including dogs. Whereas genotypes of human and chicken C. jejuni isolates have been described in some detail, only little information on canine C. jejuni genotypes is available. To gain more information on genotypes of canine C. jejuni and their zoonotic potential, isolates from routine diagnostics of diarrheic dogs as well as isolates of a prevalence study in non-diarrheic dogs were analyzed. Prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter among non-diarrheic dogs was 6.3% for C. jejuni, 5.9% for Campylobacter upsaliensis and 0.7% for Campylobacter coli. The C. jejuni isolates were genotyped by multi locus sequence typing (MLST) and flaB typing. Resistance to macrolides and quinolones was genetically determined in parallel. Within the 134 genotyped C. jejuni isolates 57 different sequence types (ST) were found. Five STs were previously unrecognized. The most common STs were ST-48 (11.2%), ST-45 (10.5%) and ST-21 (6.0%). Whereas no macrolide resistance was found, 28 isolates (20.9%) were resistant to quinolones. ST-45 was significantly more prevalent in diarrheic than in non-diarrheic dogs. Within the common time frame of isolation 94% of the canine isolates had a ST that was also found in human clinical isolates. In conclusion, prevalence of C. jejuni in Swiss dogs is low but there is a large genetic overlap between dog and human isolates. Given the close contact between human and dogs, the latter should not be ignored as a potential source of human campylobacteriosis.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Campylobacter in broiler flocks in Japan

Campylobacter was isolated from 67 (47.2%) of 142 broiler flocks between September 2009 and February 2010. The prevalence of Campylobacter in broiler flocks was significantly lower during January and February than it was from September to December. Campylobacter colonization was more common in flocks that were not provided with a disinfected water supply, which was consistent with the findings of a previous study. The prevalence of antimicrobial drug‐resistant Campylobacter spp. was investigated, and the minimum inhibitory concentrations of eight antimicrobial agents were determined for 122 Campylobacter jejuni isolates and 46 Campylobacter coli isolates from broiler flocks between 2007 and 2010. In this study, 29.5% (36/122) of C. jejuni isolates and 41.3% (19/46) of C. coli isolates were resistant to enrofloxacin (ERFX), whereas all isolates were susceptible to erythromycin. Furthermore, the ERFX‐resistant isolates were tested for susceptibility to other classes of antimicrobial agents, and 55.6% (20/36) of ERFX‐resistant C. jejuni isolates and 47.4% (9/19) of ERFX‐resistant C. coli isolates were resistant to at least one of aminobenzyl penicillin, dihydrostreptomycin and oxytetracycline. To avoid an impact of antimicrobial drug‐resistant Campylobacter spp. on the efficacy of antimicrobial treatment for human campylobacteriosis, prudent use of antimicrobial agents is a requisite. The use of antimicrobial agents should be accompanied by various approaches such as prevention of Campylobacter colonization in broiler flocks with the aim of lowering the occurrence of Campylobacter infection in humans.     

Confirmation of a Campylobacteriosis Outbreak Associated with Chicken Liver Pâté Using PFGE and WGS

In May 2012, an outbreak of campylobacteriosis occurred in southern Sweden at a wedding reception affecting 44 persons. A total of 17 cases were notified (13 were culture positive for Campylobacter spp.). Epidemiological investigation suspected chicken liver pâté as the source of infection. The liver pâté had been deliberately undercooked, lightly fried to keep the right texture and mixed with spices. Campylobacter isolates from six cases as well as three Campylobacter isolates from chicken flocks previously raised by the producer delivering the liver were subtyped using pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis and whole‐genome sequencing. Indistinguishable PFGE profiles were identified among five human and one chicken C. jejuni isolates as well among the two C. coli isolates, one from a human case and one from a chicken. WGS supported the PFGE findings; the six C. jejuni isolates belonged to one cluster. All these six isolates were of MLST type ST 50 (ST‐CC 21). This study highlights the importance of a combination of strict biosecurity at the flock‐level as well as adequate cooking of chicken liver to prevent transmission of Campylobacter to humans.     

Molecular epidemiology of Campylobacter isolates from broiler slaughterhouses in Tripoli,North of Lebanon

ABSTRACT

1. The real burden of Campylobacter spp. in Lebanon is still unknown. The aims of this study were to unravel the epidemiology of Campylobacter spp. in broilers at slaughterhouses in Tripoli, North of Lebanon and to characterise their antibiotic resistance profiles.

2. From May to November 2015, sampling was performed through five repeated surveys from 15 slaughterhouses that sold chicken directly to Lebanese customers. Isolates were subjected to pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and flaA-restriction fragment length polymorphism (flaA-RFLP).

3. All investigated slaughterhouses were found to be positive for Campylobacter spp. Campylobacter coli was the predominant species (38 isolates) followed by C. jejuni (eight isolates). A noticeable level of resistance was detected among isolates against ciprofloxacin (97% of C. coli and 87.5% of C. jejuni), amoxicillin (89% of C. coli and 75% of C. jejuni), gentamicin (79% of C. coli and 50% of C. jejuni), and co-amoxiclav (24% of C. coli and 25% of C. jejuni). Erythromycin and ertapenem resistance were observed only in C. coli with the following percentages 74% and 13% respectively, but not in C. jejuni. PFGE and flaA-RFLP using DdeI as restriction enzyme divided the strains into 27 and 25 types respectively.

4. The high observed genetic diversity of Campylobacter spp. revealed the complexity of the spread of this genus in broilers. This study highlighted the pressing need to monitor antibiotic resistance and to ensure food safety from ‘farm to fork’ in Lebanon.     

Campylobacteriosis in dogs and cats: a review

Campylobacter species are commonly isolated from faecal samples collected from dogs and cats, with the most prevalent species being C. upsaliensis, C. helveticus, and C. jejuni. Although the majority of dogs and cats are subclinically infected, some will develop mild to moderate enteritis. Immature animals, animals from intensive housing backgrounds, and animals with concurrent disease are especially predisposed to infection and the development of clinical signs. Bacterial culture methods applied in diagnostic laboratories remain biased to C. jejuni and C. coli detection, but molecular methods to diagnose Campylobacter spp. infections in dogs and cats have become widely available and can aid rapid and accurate diagnosis. Multilocus sequence typing has also been developed for subtyping different strains and has been used in epidemiological investigations. In the majority of cases, clinical signs are self-limiting and antimicrobial treatment is not warranted. Campylobacter spp. isolated from dogs and cats have shown resistance to commonly used antimicrobials, so antimicrobial therapy should only be administered where this is justified. Contact with dogs and cats is a recognised risk factor for human campylobacteriosis, thus people living or working in close contact with cats and dogs should be made aware of the zoonotic organisms these animals can shed.     

Faecal Campylobacter shedding among dogs in animal shelters across Texas

Epidemiologic studies on faecal Campylobacter shedding among dogs in the United States have been limited, despite evidence that the incidence of human campylobacteriosis has increased over the last decade. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of faecal Campylobacter shedding among shelter dogs in Texas, to estimate the specific prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli shedding, and to identify risk factors for Campylobacter‐positive status. Using a cross‐sectional study design, we collected faecal samples from dogs in six animal shelters across Texas between May and December, 2014. Quantitative PCR protocols were used to detect Campylobacter in samples and to specifically identify C. jejuni and C. coli. The prevalence of faecal Campylobacter shedding among sampled dogs was 75.7% (140/185). Prevalence varied significantly by shelter (p = .03), ranging from 57% to 93%. There was a marginal association (p = .06) between abnormal faecal consistency and positive Campylobacter status, after controlling for shelter as a random effect. However, approximately 70% of Campylobacter‐positive dogs had grossly normal faeces. Campylobacter prevalence did not vary significantly by age group or sex. The prevalence of C. jejuni‐positive samples was 5.4% (10/185), but C. coli was not detected in any samples. Dogs are a potential source of zoonotic Campylobacter transmission.     

Comparison of Different Sampling Strategies and Laboratory Methods for the Detection of C. jejuni and C. coli from Broiler Flocks at Primary Production

Summary The objective of the study was to evaluate the performance of different combinations of sample type, transport medium and culture methods for the recovery of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli from broiler flocks at primary production. Boot swabs moistened with one of four different transport media [maximum recovery diluent (n = 120), Exeter broth (EX) (n = 120), buffered peptone water (n = 120) and modified semi‐solid Cary‐Blair (n = 120)], caecal samples (n = 40) and faecal samples (n = 120) from 40 broiler flocks were compared and sensitivity estimates obtained using a Bayesian model. Samples were cultured onto mCCDA before and after enrichment in EX and incubated microaerobically at 41.5°C. Campylobacter suspect colonies were identified to the species level by multiplex PCR. Results from the Bayesian model indicated that boot swabs after enrichment had higher sensitivity (90–94%) than caecal contents before or after enrichment (84% and 89%, respectively) and faecal samples after enrichment (82%) for the detection of Campylobacter spp., although these differences were not statistically significant. Enrichment significantly increased the sensitivity of boot swab and caecal samples for detection of Campylobacter spp. and C. jejuni, respectively. However, the enrichment of caecal samples resulted in a significant decrease in the sensitivity of these samples for detection of C. coli. There was much greater variation in the sensitivity estimates of the methods for detecting C. coli than for C. jejuni, and the ranking of methods was different between the two species. Boot swabs gave the best sensitivity values for detection of C. jejuni, and enrichment culture of faecal samples was the most sensitive method for detection of C. coli.