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1.
In Central Cameroon cocoa is mainly produced by household farming systems based on complex associations between cocoa and companion trees. Setup either on native/remnant forest or savannah, these agroforestry systems (AFS) are managed according their geographical position and local pedoclimatic conditions. In this paper, we investigated the effects of local management strategies on carbon (C) storage of live trees in three different cocoa production zones of Central Cameroon. In the 58 fields studied, 8,996 cocoa trees and 1,258 companions were surveyed. Tree sampling was non-destructive and to estimate C storage we used allometric models for above- and belowground biomasses. We measured abundance, height, diameter at breast height and determined species of companion trees. We distinguished between four cocoa plantation age categories (immature, young, mature and senescent) and three preceding systems (forest, forest gallery and savannah). We surveyed farmers’ use of each associated tree, allocated it to a functional category and asked if it had been introduced or conserved. Total C content of live trees was on average close to 70 t ha?1. We found that it mostly relied on associated trees—cocoa trees contribution being ac. 2–12 % of live trees total C. The level of contribution to C storage of companions from different use categories differed between sites—trees producing food had contributed most in Bokito and Obala while trees used for shading or fertility contributed most in Ngomedzap. Dynamics of C storage in live trees was found to be independent from cocoa trees growth and age. When aging, AFS continuously lost companion trees and especially conserved ones putatively because of farmers’ selective logging. Yet, AFS apparently maintained equivalent C storage abilities with time. Hence, even if cocoa do not contribute significantly to C storage in our study, the systems into which they are included are able to significantly store C and may also contribute to other ecological services such as conservation. 相似文献
2.
Luke C. N. Anglaaere Joseph Cobbina Fergus L. Sinclair Morag A. McDonald 《Agroforestry Systems》2011,81(3):249-265
Traditionally, most cocoa farms are established by removing the forest understorey and thinning the forest canopy so that
cocoa seedlings can grow into productive trees by utilising the forest rent of the newly cleared area and the shade provided
by the remaining trees. With the introduction of new hybrid cocoa varieties, there is a gradual shift towards the elimination
of shade trees in the cocoa landscape. Farmers have found it necessary to eliminate forest tree species to effect high performance
of these new varieties and as a result large areas of forested land are being lost, thereby posing a threat to biodiversity
A study was carried out in Atwima, a major cocoa farming district in the Ashanti region of Ghana, to assess the impact of
cocoa cultivation on tree diversity. The study also investigated farmers’ preferences for tree species retained on cocoa farms
as well as their traditional knowledge on tree species and their effect on cocoa cultivation. The assessment consisted of
identification and enumeration of all tree species with diameter at breast height greater than or equal to 10 cm, and was
carried out on one-hectare plots of: (a) Active Cocoa Farms (ACF), stratified into (i) Mature Cocoa Forest (MCF) and (ii)
Young Replanted Cocoa (YRC); (b) Fallow land (FL), and (c) Natural Forest (NF). A total of four one-hectare plots replicated
five times (or 20 ha) were enumerated. Tree diversity was more strongly influenced by landuse type than age of cocoa farm.
Fallow lands contained a higher tree diversity followed by natural forest, with the active cocoa farms, both mature and young,
containing the lowest variety of species. However, stem count was highest in the natural forest followed by FL and ACF. Generally,
stem counts of important tree species, as well as those classified as either endangered or vulnerable, were extremely low
in the landscape (0–2 per hectare), indicating a critical potential for conservation and rejuvenation. Farmers’ preference
for trees on cocoa farms was based on their usefulness. Three categories of trees emerged from their classification of trees
on cocoa farms: (i) naturally occurring trees that are very useful; (ii) naturally occurring species of minor economic use;
and (iii) naturally occurring tree species that are aggressive or incompatible with cocoa. Multistrata cocoa farms are a potential
niche for conservation, but given the current trends in cocoa replanting, future conservation strategies will have to focus
on identified targeted species which are of conservation concern, as well as those that are of value to farmers. 相似文献
3.
Patrick Jagoret Isabelle Michel-Dounias Didier Snoeck Hervé Todem Ngnogué Eric Malézieux 《Agroforestry Systems》2012,86(3):493-504
Cocoa cultivation is generally considered to foster deforestation. Contrary to this view, in the forest–savannah interface area in Cameroon, farmers have planted cocoa agroforestry systems on Imperata cylindrica grasslands, a soil-climate zone generally considered unsuitable for cocoa cultivation. We undertook a survey to understand the agricultural and ecological bases of this innovation. Age, cropping history and marketable cocoa yield were assessed in a sample of 157 cocoa plantations established on grasslands and 182 cocoa plantations established in gallery forests. In a sub-sample of 47 grassland cocoa plantations, we inventoried tree species associated with cocoa trees and measured soil organic matter levels. Marketable cocoa yields were similar for the two types of cocoa plantations, regardless of their age: 321?kg?ha?1 in cocoa plantations on grasslands and 354?kg?ha?1 in cocoa plantations in gallery forests. Two strategies were used by farmers to eliminate I. cylindrica prior to the establishment of cocoa plantations, i.e., cropping oil palms in dense stands and planting annual crops. Farmers then planted cocoa trees and fruit tree species, while preserving specific forest trees. The fruit tree and forest tree densities respectively averaged 223 and 68 trees?ha?1 in plantations under 10?years old, and 44 and 27 trees?ha?1 in plantations over 40?years old, whereas the cocoa tree density remained stable at 1,315 trees?ha?1. The Shannon–Weaver index increased from 1.97 to 2.26 over the same period although the difference was not statistically significant. The soil organic matter level was 3.13?% in old cocoa plantations, as compared to 1.7?% in grasslands. In conclusion, our results show that the occupation of grasslands by cocoa agroforestry systems is both an important example of ecological intensification and a significant farmer innovation in the history of cocoa growing. 相似文献
4.
The agroforestry garden system in Maninjau in West Sumatra is characterized by an intensive integration of forest species and commercial crops, forming a forest-like system. The intimate association of different species provides both subsistence and commercial products which supplement rice production. This complex agroforest is managed by the combination between cultural practices and respect of natural processes of vegetation production and reproduction. It represents a profitable production system and constitutes an efficient buffer between villages and protected forest. It is a good model of association between integration of forest resources and cultivation of cash crops in the form of a sustainable and flexible system. 相似文献
5.
Marney E. Isaac Eric O. Adjei Roland N. Issaka Vic R. Timmer 《Agroforestry Systems》2011,81(2):147-155
Shade tolerant species response to nutrient additions and light regulation by canopy trees in perennial agroforestry systems
has been well documented. However, accelerated early growth, particularly in cocoa-shade systems, may be offset by competition
for limited resources on nutrient poor sites. To date, few agroforestry management strategies focus on nutrient manipulation
of the shade tree component or strategies for precision nutrient application. Our research objective was to diagnose interactions
between nutrient supplied shade trees intercropped with cocoa. We established greenhouse trials in Kwadaso, Ghana cultivating
Terminalia superba seedlings with four fertility treatment levels: conventional rate (current practices) under linear additions, and half, full
and double conventional rate under exponential additions (steady-state nutrition) to determine maximal growth and nutrient
uptake. After 4 months of additions in the nursery, pre-fertilized T. superba seedlings were then out-planted into field trials with cocoa seedlings. After 4 months of intercropping, cocoa associated
with half rate exponentially supplied T. superba had significantly larger leaf area, greater leaf number, and higher nutrition (N and P uptake) than cocoa associated with
full rate conventionally supplied T. superba. This may be attributed to (1) more favorable light conditions under these taller shade seedlings and (2) the internal use
of nutrients associated with exponentially supplied T. superba seedlings, which lowered stress on native soil resources. The latter is corroborated with our findings on soil fertility
status. This strategy focused on reducing fertilizer inputs and developing precise plant nutrition technology for on-farm
use. Our findings suggest that shade seedlings under steady state nutrition can mitigate early growth competition in the field. 相似文献
6.
G. Moser C. Leuschner D. Hertel D. Hölscher M. Köhler D. Leitner B. Michalzik E. Prihastanti S. Tjitrosemito L. Schwendenmann 《Agroforestry Systems》2010,79(2):171-187
In South-east Asia, ENSO-related droughts represent irregularly occurring hazards for agroforestry systems containing cocoa
which are predicted to increase in severity with expected climate warming. To characterize the drought response of mature
cocoa trees, we conducted the Sulawesi Throughfall Displacement Experiment in a shaded (Gliricidia sepium) cocoa agroforestry system in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Three large sub-canopy roofs were installed to reduce throughfall
by about 80% over a 13-month period to test the hypotheses that (i) cocoa trees are sensitive to drought due to their shallow
fine root system, and (ii) bean yield is more sensitive to drought than leaf or stem growth. As 83% of fine root (diameter
<2 mm) and 86% of coarse root biomass (>2 mm) was located in the upper 40 cm of the soil, the cocoa trees examined had a very
shallow root system. Cocoa and Gliricidia differed in their vertical rooting patterns, thereby reducing competition for water. Despite being exposed for several months
to soil water contents close to the conventional wilting point, cocoa trees showed no significant decreases in leaf biomass,
stem and branch wood production or fine root biomass. Possible causes are active osmotic adjustment in roots, mitigation of
drought stress by shading from Gliricidia or other factors. By contrast, production of cocoa beans was significantly reduced in the roof plots, supporting reports
of substantial reductions in bean yields during ENSO-related drought events in the region. We conclude that cocoa possesses
traits related to drought tolerance which enable it to maintain biomass production during extended dry periods, whereas bean
yield appears to be particularly drought sensitive. 相似文献
7.
Diversity, composition and density of trees and shrubs in agroforestry homegardens in Southern Ethiopia 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Diversity of trees and shrubs in agricultural systems contributes to provision of wood and non-wood products, and protects the environment, thereby, enhancing socioeconomic and ecological sustainability of the systems. This study characterizes the diversity, density and composition of trees in the agroforestry homegardens of Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia, and analyses physical and socioeconomic factors influencing diversity and composition of trees in the systems. A total of 144 homegardens were surveyed from 12 sites. In total, 120 species of trees and shrubs were recorded of which, 74.2 % were native to the area. The mean number of tree species per farm was 21. Density of trees varied between sites with mean values ranging from 86 to 1,082, and the overall average was 475 trees ha?1. Four different crop-based enset (Enset ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman)-coffee homegarden types were recognized and they differed not only in the composition of major crops but also in the diversity, density and composition of trees. The composition, diversity and density of trees is influenced by physical and socioeconomic factors. The major physical factors were geographical distance between sites and differences in altitude of farms. The most important socioeconomic factors were farm size and access to roads. Tree species richness and density increased with farm size. Increased road access facilitated marketing opportunities to agricultural products including trees, and lead to a decline in the basic components of the system, enset, coffee and trees. In the road-access sites, the native trees have also been largely replaced with fast growing exotic species, mainly eucalypts. The decrease in diversity of trees and perennial components of the system, and its gradual replacement with new cash and annual food crops could jeopardize the integrity and complexity of the system, which has been responsible for its sustenance. 相似文献
8.
Agroforestry is a leading alternative for food security and forest conservation. A full understanding of positive and negative,
i.e. allelopathic, interactions between crops and forest trees is necessary for producing crops and conserving forests especially
within the threatened Mediterranean forest ecosystems. The present study explored the allelopathic effects of green and senescent
leaf and soil extracts of two agroforestry trees—Pinus halepensis and Quercus coccifera—on the germination of wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and fababean as the major grain crops of Jordan. Results revealed
that allelopathic effects reduced seed germination of these crops. Germination reduction reached a maximum of 75% in fababean
treated with green extracts of Q. coccifera and differed among crops and extract sources, but not between tree species. Comparing between green and senescent leaf and
soil extract, regarding their effect on germination percentage, it was noticed that these effects were similar in some crops
and were different in others. Germination responses were generally different between cereals and legumes where cereals tend
to be less affected by allelopathic influences than legumes, especially fababean. We suggest using cereals such as wheat and
barley in agroforestry practices in the Mediterranean region of Jordan. 相似文献
9.
The potential contribution of agroforestry systems to the management and genetic resources conservation in iroko (Milicia excelsa), an important and valuable timber tree species in sub-Saharan Africa, is addressed in this paper. The structure and dynamics
of traditional agroforestry systems and the ecological structure of Milicia excelsa populations in farmlands were studied through a survey carried out in 100 farmlands covering the natural range of iroko in
Benin. Forty-five species belonging to 24 plant families were recorded in traditional agroforestry systems. Average tree density
varied from 1 to 7 stems ha−1 with diversity index ranging from 2.6 to 2.9. Milicia excelsa occurred sparsely in agroforestry systems in all regions, with density ranging from 1 to 4 stems ha−1; stand basal area varying from 33.10−4 to 129.10−4 m2 ha−1, and negligible seedling regeneration. However, male and female trees were apparently evenly distributed on farmlands in
all regions (F/M > 0). Iroko trees produced viable seeds with moderate germination rate and early growth (germination rate
22% and height 7.29 cm after 3 months). Suggestions are made regarding optimal densities for iroko conservation in farmlands,
according to farmers’ socioeconomic conditions in different regions, in order to improve traditional agroforestry systems
and their use as biological corridors in conservation of Milicia excelsa genetic resources. 相似文献
10.
The sustainability of cocoa growing systems in the humid tropics is debatable. Socio-economic and technical data were obtained
from 1,171 cocoa farmers and 1,638 cocoa plantations to assess the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon
since the beginning of the twentieth century. On-site, we estimated the age of the cocoa trees and measured their density
in a sub-sample of 402 cocoa plantations. We inventoried associated woody species in 45 cocoa plantations from this sub-sample.
Our results revealed a high Shannon index for the cocoa plantations (2.6) and showed that an average of 25 tree species per
cocoa plantation had been planted with the cocoa trees at a density of 120 trees ha−1. Surveys indicated that there had been no mineral fertilization. Nearly 70% of the cocoa agroforests were over 40 years old,
and all farmers continuously regenerated their cocoa tree stands. Irrespective of the cocoa plantation age, the cocoa tree
density remained over 1,000 plants ha−1, and fermented dried cocoa yields were 255 kg ha−1 on average. Cocoa agroforests occupied 60% of the cultivated area on farms and cocoa sales accounted for 75% of total farm
income. Almost a third of the farmers were from the area and under 40 years old. In conclusion, our results show that the
farmers’ agroforestry practices, in addition to the fact that the cocoa tree stands were continuously regenerated and passed
down between generations of farmers, could explain the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon. 相似文献
11.
Understanding the historical development of indigenous systems will provide valuable information for the design of ecologically
desirable agroforestry production systems. Such studies have been relatively few, especially in Amazonia. The agroforestry
systems in Amazonia follow a trail that begins with the arrival of the first hunter-gatherers in prehistoric times, followed
by the domestication of plants for agriculture, the development of complex societies rich in material culture, the decimation
of these societies by European diseases, warfare, and slavery, the introduction of exotic species, and finally, the present-day
scenario of widespread deforestation, in which agroforestry is ascribed a potential role as an alternative land use. Despite
the upheavals which occurred in colonial times, greatly reducing the population of native tribes, a review of anthropological
and ethnobiological literature from recent decades indicates that a great variety of indigenous agroforestry practices still
exist, ranging from deliberate planting of trees in homegardens and fields to the management of volunteer seedlings of both
cultivated and wild species. These practices result in various configurations of agroforestry systems, such as homegardens,
tree/crop combinations in fields, orchards of mixed fruit trees, and enriched fallows. Together they constitute a stock of
knowledge developed over millenia, and represent technologies that evolved along with the domestication of native forest species
and their incorporation into food production systems. This knowledge is the basis for the principal agroforestry practice
employed by farmers in Amazonia today, the homegarden, and has potential to contribute to the development of other agroforestry
systems. 相似文献
12.
Traditional agroforestry systems and biodiversity conservation in Benin (West Africa) 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
Vodouhe G. Fifanou Coulibaly Ousmane Biaou Gauthier Sinsin Brice 《Agroforestry Systems》2011,82(1):1-13
In the past, the conservation of biodiversity has been mostly understood in terms of the management of protected areas and
natural forests, ignoring the possible role of farm areas and the ways through which rural communities have promoted biodiversity
in their subsistence agricultural production systems. The present study focused on the floristic diversity within traditional
agroforestry parkland systems around the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin and showed the diversity of tree species in the
area as well as socio-economic factors which affect the practice of this farming system. We used questionnaires and interviewed
a total of 118 households to collect data. Respondents were interviewed on their farms and during the interview; we inventoried
the number of tree on the farm and determined the farm size. Twenty-one tree species belonging to 14 botanical families were
recorded during the surveys and the average stand density of the woody component of farmlands was 7.97 ± 5.43 stems/ha. A
number of both native and exotic tree species occurred in the parkland agroforestry systems with dominance of indigenous tree
species. Species richness varied with the size of household where households with small land holding conserve more tree species
in their field than households with large land holdings. 64% of households surveyed were making deliberate efforts to plant
tree species on their farmlands. The most important reasons which determined household ambitions to conserve woody species
on farmland were tree products contribution to food and medicine. Results also showed that respondents who noticed that trees
were decreasing in the wild conserve more tree species on their farmlands. This research highlights the role of traditional
agroforestry practices to support tree species richness and provides evidence of the farms’ role as biodiversity reservoirs. 相似文献
13.
Cropland agroforest is an important production system in the southwest region of Bangladesh. This study focused on the floristic composition and management of existing cropland agroforests. A total of 313 cropland agroforests were surveyed and 83%respondents practiced pure agroforestry while the remaining 17% practiced agroforestry with fisheries. A total of 18 forest trees and 2 shrubs were recorded from 11 families and 59 species of agricultural crops were from 28 families. A higher proportion (79%) of cropland agroforests were occupied small land areas (0.12-0.80 ha). About 63% of respondents planted trees for fruit production and 47%for timber production, and 35%of respondents engaged in commercial production (35%). Swietenia macrophylla was the most prevalent species (relative prevalence 20.83) followed by Man-gifera indica (relative prevalence 15.57) and Cocos nucifera (relative prevalence 7.08). Shorter spacing was used for timber and fuel wood species and wider spacing for fruit trees. A wide range of rotation periods, from 5 to 25 years, was observed for both cases. The use of chemical fertilizer was highest followed by cow dung and compost in cropland agroforests. Overall management practices of cropland agroforest in southwest Bangladesh were determined by the end product and local demand. 相似文献
14.
A study on seasonal soil nutrient dynamics was made in large cardamom (Amonum subulatum) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata) agroforestry systems in the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Alnus nepalensis was the N2-fixing associate in the large cardamom system, and Albizia stipulata in the mandarin agroforestry system. Sites without N2-fixing species in both agroforestry types comprised native non-symbiotic mixed tree species. Soil was acidic in the cardamom agroforestry and slightly acidic to neutral in the mandarin agroforestry system. Total-N in soils was the highest in the forest-cardamom stand and the lowest in the mandarin-based agroforestry systems. Soil ammonium-N and nitrate-N concentrations were highly seasonal, and the ratio of seasonal maximum and minimum varied up to six times. The C/N ratio was higher in cardamom agroforestry indicating lower N availability than in the mandarin agroforestry. Cardamom stand with Alnus showed a relatively narrower C/N ratio. N2-fixing species help in maintenance of soil organic matter levels with higher N-mineralization rate as land use change from natural-forest system to agroforestry systems with sparse tree populations. Ratios of inorganic-P/total-P were lower in cardamom agroforestry than the mandarin agroforestry. Seasonal fluctuation in Ca-PO4, Al-PO4 and Fe-PO4 contents regulated the availability of phosphates to some extent for plant uptake. 相似文献
15.
Lorena Soto-Pinto Manuel Anzueto Jorge Mendoza Guillermo Jimenez Ferrer Ben de Jong 《Agroforestry Systems》2010,78(1):39-51
The importance of agroforestry systems as carbon sinks has recently been recognized due to the need of climate change mitigation.
The objective of this study was to compare the carbon content in living biomass, soil (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 cm in depth), dead
organic matter between a set of non-agroforestry and agroforestry prototypes in Chiapas, Mexico where the carbon sequestration
programme called Scolel’te has been carried out. The prototypes compared were: traditional maize (rotational prototype with
pioneer native trees evaluated in the crop period), Taungya (maize with timber trees), improved fallow, traditional fallow
(the last three rotational prototypes in the crop-free period), Inga-shade-organic coffee, polyculture-shade organic coffee,
polyculture-non-organic coffee, pasture without trees, pasture with live fences, and pasture with scattered trees. Taungya
and improved fallow were designed agroforestry prototypes, while the others were reproduced traditional systems. Seventy-nine
plots were selected in three agro-climatic zones. Carbon in living biomass, dead biomass, and soil organic matter was measured
in each plot. Results showed that carbon in living biomass and dead organic matter were different according to prototype;
while soil organic carbon and total carbon were influenced mostly by the agro-climatic zone (P < 0.01). Carbon density in the high tropical agro-climatic zone (1,000 m) was higher compared to the intermediate and low
tropical agro-climatic zones (600 and 200 m, respectively, P < 0.01). All the systems contained more carbon than traditional maize and pastures without trees. Silvopastoral systems,
improved fallow, Taungya and coffee systems (especially polyculture-shade coffee and organic coffee) have the potential to
sequester carbon via growing trees. Agroforestry systems could also contribute to carbon sequestration and reducing emissions
when burning is avoided. The potential of organic coffee to maintain carbon in soil and to reduce emissions from deforestation
and ecosystem degradation (REDD) is discussed. 相似文献
16.
Biologically mediated soil processes rely on soil biota to provide vital ecosystem services in natural and managed ecosystems. However, land use changes continue to impact on assemblages of soil biota and the ecosystem services they provide. The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of land use intensification on the distribution and abundance of soil invertebrate communities in the Nilgiri, a human-dominated biosphere reserve of international importance. Soil invertebrates were sampled in 15 land use practices ranging from simple and intensively managed annual crop fields and monoculture tree plantations through less intensively managed agroforestry and pristine forest ecosystems. The lowest taxonomic richness was found in annual crops and coconut monoculture plantations, while the highest was in moist-deciduous and semi-evergreen forests. With 21 ant species, agroforestry systems had the highest diversity of ants followed by forest ecosystems (12 species). Earthworms and millipedes were significantly more abundant in agroforestry systems, plantations and forest ecosystems than in annual crop fields. Ants, termites, beetles, centipedes, crickets and spiders were more abundant in forest ecosystems than in other ecosystems. It is concluded that annual cropping systems have lower diversity and abundance of soil invertebrates than agroforestry and natural forest ecosystems. These results and the literature from other regions highlight the potential role that agroforestry practices can play in biodiversity conservation in an era of ever-increasing land use intensification and habitat loss. 相似文献
17.
Predatory beetles in cacao agroforestry systems in Brazilian Atlantic forest: a test of the natural enemy hypothesis 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The natural enemy hypothesis predicts a positive correlation between plant species diversity and natural enemy control. This study aimed to evaluate the role of traditional cacao agroforests, known as “cabrucas,” on the conservation of the predatory beetle community compared to that of monodominant rubber agroforests. Predatory beetles were sampled in three habitats in Southeastern Bahia, Brazil: cabrucas and rubber agroforests and native Atlantic forests. In each habitat, 18 10 m2 plots were established, in which canopy cover was measured and beetles were sampled with a modified Malaise/window trap. Land use intensification did not affect the composition of predatory beetles, with the presence of widely distributed species that are also capable of colonizing simpler environments such as the rubber agroforest. Canopy cover had a positive effect on generalist predator diversity and we observed a reduction in the abundance and species richness of generalist predators with increasing habitat homogenization. Despite the simplified structure of the habitat, the remaining tree diversity and canopy cover in cabrucas supported a community of generalist predators similar to the one found in the native forest. Species diversity of bark beetle predators was higher in cabrucas, which may be due to the high diversity of bark beetles and the favorable abiotic conditions, whereas the low abundance of prey in the native forest and severe abiotic conditions in the rubber agroforest probably determined the lower diversity of generalist predators in these habitats. Cabrucas play an important role in the conservation, supporting a community of predatory beetles more similar to the one found in native forest and that is more effective at controlling populations of herbivores than in homogeneous rubber agroforests. 相似文献
18.
A.E. AssogbadjoR. Glèlè Kakaï F.G. Vodouhê C.A.M.S. DjagounJ.T.C. Codjia B. Sinsin 《Forest Policy and Economics》2012,14(1):41-49
Wild edible trees are expected to play a significant role in the crop diversification programs and agroforestry development in Africa. In the present study, the diversity of wild food species and socio-economical factors that support farmers' choice for the species used in these systems were assessed. A number of selected sites in each of the 3 climatic zones of Benin were surveyed. Data were collected through a field exploration and a semi-structured survey among 435 selected households throughout the country, using a questionnaire. The most culturally important species ranked by locals were determined for each climatic zone and the relations between the targeted species in traditional agroforestry systems and the reasons which support peasants' choices were described through a Principal Component Analysis. A total of 43 wild edible trees were found in the traditional agroforestry systems of Benin during the survey. Traditional agroforestry systems in the Guineo-Congolian zone turned out to be the most diversified with 29 species followed by the Sudanian zone with 22 species and Sudano-Guinean zone with 16 species. The most culturally important wild edible trees in traditional agroforestry systems in the Guineo-Congolian zone were different from those identified in Sudanian and Sudano-Guinean zones. Three main reasons that support peasants' ambition to conserve or to grow wild edible trees in their field were: their contribution to food, their use in traditional medicine and ceremonies and the farmers' perception of their availability in natural vegetation. 相似文献
19.
Bird species diversity and bird species richness were surveyed in a natural mixed forest (mature forest) and in a coniferous
plantation (30–40 years old) monthly from 1990 to 1994. These forests were 20 km apart and had similar weather conditions
and soil types. There were larch and cedar plantations, and hardwoods along streams in the coniferous plantation. In the natural
mixed forest, 55 bird species were found, whereas 40 species were recorded in the coniferous plantation. The species diversity
of bird communities was significantly higher in the natural mixed forest than in the coniferous plantation mixed with hardwood
trees. This result indicates that the coniferous plantation mixed with hardwood trees, presumed to be a more simplified environment,
is likely to be less inhabitable for many bird species than the natural mixed forest, suggesting a relationship between the
diversity of the forest environment and the diversity of the bird community. A higher number of bird species was recorded
in the small coniferous forest mixed with hardwood trees compared with those in the coniferous plantation. The mixing of broad-leaved
trees in a coniferous plantation was suggested to be effective in increasing number of bird species. These tendencies were
recorded all through the year during our study. In snow-covering periods, both the diversity and the bird species richness
fell in all study sites every year. Snow cover would have greater effect on bird species diversity in the coniferous plantation
than in other forest types probably due to diet shortages caused by the snow cover over the forest floor. 相似文献
20.
Plant-soil-water relations of a silvopastoral system composed of a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) timber crop, subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) as a nitrogen-fixing forage, and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) as a forage crop were investigated near Corvallis, Oregon, during 1983–1986. Treatments included all possible combinations of two tree-planting patterns (trees planted 2.4 m apart in a grid, and groups of five trees spaced 7.6 m between clusters) and two grazing/understory management systems (agroforests were seeded to subclover and grazed by sheep; forests were unseeded and ungrazed).Mean twig xylem water potential (XWP) for Douglas-fir trees ranged from –0.3 to –1.5 MPa on forest plots and from –0.3 to –1.2 MPa on agroforest sites. Pre-dawn and sunset XWP were more negative for forest than for agroforest plots during dry summer periods. Midday XWP was similar for both agroforest and forest plots on all dates. Soil water content at 50–100 cm depth was greater under agroforest plots as compared to forest plots in 1984, but not in 1985 (unusually dry spring). Average foliage nitrogen content of tree needles was 1.54% vs. 1.43% for agroforests vs. forests, respectively.Our data are consistent with the hypotheses that: (1) grazing of understory vegetation may reduce water stress of trees during dry periods by reducing transpirational water use by the forage plants; and (2) nitrogen-fixing vegetation combined with grazing increases nitrogen uptake of associated trees. However, neither mean foliar N nor average XWP differences experienced by trees in agroforest versus forest plantations were sufficient to have an effect on tree growth. Our data demonstrate that it is possible to produce a second crop (i.e. forage grazed by sheep) in timber plantations without reducing the growth of the main tree crop.Submitted as Oregon Agrocultural Experiment Station Technical Paper No. 10109. 相似文献