Conservation of bats in suburban landscapes: roost selection by Myotis yumanensis in a residential area in California

Protection of roosting habitat is essential to the conservation of bats in human-dominated landscapes. To help define bat roosting needs in suburban settings, we used radio telemetry to locate day roosts of a common North American species (Myotis yumanensis) within a residential area in California. Between June and August 2000, we tracked 16 bats to 20 roosts in two buildings and 18 trees. We used multiple logistic regression to assess roost selectivity at multiple spatial scales. Of 15 tree, plot, and site characteristics considered, only three helped distinguish roosts from random comparisons: tree diameter, distance to water, and forest cover. Myotis yumanensis preferred large trees (mean diameter 115 cm), and roosted only in the five species of largest mean diameter (Sequoia sempervirens, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus agrifolia, Quercus lobata, and Acer macrophyllum). At the site level, these bats selected roosts that were close to water and had substantial forest cover in the surrounding 100-m radius. Unlike other North American bats, they often roosted in live trees (89% live). Relatively high roost fidelity (mean 4.8 days) and large travel distances between consecutive roosts (mean 1130 m) and between capture sites and roosts (mean 2007 m) may indicate a greater degree of roost limitation at this site versus other research sites. We recommend the preservation of large trees and forested parkland, particularly along stream corridors, to help maintain bat populations in urbanizing landscapes.     

Location of roosts of the lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi and Gould's wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldii in a fragmented landscape in south-eastern Australia

The location of roosts of two species of vespertilionid bats, the lesser long-eared bat (Nyctophilus geoffroyi) and Gould’s wattled bat (Chalinolobus gouldii), was investigated in a remnant vegetation-farmland mosaic and adjacent floodplain forest in south-eastern Australia. A total of 45 individuals of N. geoffroyi and 27 C. gouldii were fitted with radio transmitters, which resulted in the location of 139 and 89 roosts respectively. Selection of roosting habitat showed both inter- and intra-specific differences. At the landscape level, locations of roosts used by male and female N. geoffroyi differed markedly. Most males roosted in the farmland mosaic within 3 km (mean 1.9±2.9 km) of where they were captured while foraging in remnant vegetation. In contrast, roost sites of females were predominantly in the floodplain forest, 6-12 km from their capture site in farmland (mean for all females, 6.7±2.9 km). All maternity roosts were in the extensive floodplain forest, 4-10 km from foraging areas. Distances moved by this species were greater than previously recorded and further than predicted by flight morphology. Most C. gouldii roosted in the floodplain forest, 4-10 km from their capture site (6.9±1.6 km). Within the floodplain forest, both species roosted in areas that had higher densities of hollow-bearing trees than generally available; dead hollow-bearing trees for N. geoffroyi and large, live trees for C. gouldii. The scale of movements undertaken by these species means that they can obtain resources from multiple landscape elements. Both species used different habitats for roosting and foraging despite the energetic costs of commuting relatively large distances. Conservation of bat populations in rural environments needs to be considered at the landscape scale, with particular attention to identifying landscape elements that provide key resources.     

Monitoring trends in bat populations through roost surveys: methods and data from Rhinolophus hipposideros

Volunteers counted lesser horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus hipposideros) emerging from 79 roosts throughout Wales prior to parturition over a 5-year period. Analysis of the count data and environmental variables revealed that there was no statistically significant change in the number of bats counted during the monitoring period. A maximum count of 5118 lesser horseshoe bats for one of the years of the study, suggests a Welsh population of >10,000. Within years, date had a strong influence on roost count with higher counts occurring later in the year. Analyses of roosts for which data was available in most years failed to find any evidence of changes in number of emerging bats over time either between roosts or across geographical regions. Over the time period studied, the population of R. hipposideros was stable. Power analysis suggested that the present monitoring programme should be able to detect a 5% increase or decrease over a 5-year period and could detect smaller trends over longer periods of time even when some data were missing. Roost surveys can therefore be a valuable tool to assess the status of a bat species, alert conservationists to population declines and provide feedback regarding the success of conservation management for bats.     

Bats in a fragmented landscape: Species composition, diversity and habitat interactions in savannas of Santarém, Central Amazonia, Brazil

Species response to forest fragmentation may strongly vary according to ecological requirements, shape, spatial configuration and connectivity of fragments, and the structure of the surrounding matrix. Bats are natural candidates for studies on forest fragmentation. However, the conclusions of such studies are often contradictory. We present the results of a study on the effects of forest fragmentation on bat communities in Alter do Chão, Santarém area, in Central Amazonia, Brazil, an area composed by forests and fragments surrounded by savanna-like vegetation. We compared the species composition between habitats, tested the effect of size, shape and density of trees of forested areas on the presence species and their relative frequency of captures, and investigated the savannas as an ecological barrier for the dispersion of bats. With an effort of 5678 mistnet-hours, we captured 3740 bats (64 species). Multidimensional Scaling indicated no strong separation between the habitats sampled, however, savanna sites were grouped distinctly of fragments and forest sites. Multiple linear regressions indicated no significant correlation between the number of bat species recorded and the size, shape or tree density in forest sites and fragments. There was a significant correlation between the number of captures and the variables tested, explained by the shape of the sites, but not by size or tree density. In general, sites with bigger shape indices had fewer captures. Ten of the 20 most captured species showed no significant difference between the three habitats. The bat communities in Alter do Chão were not strongly affected by forest fragmentation, and the savannas did not appear to act as an ecological barrier to bats.     

Sex-specific roost movements and population dynamics of the vulnerable long-fingered bat, Myotis capaccinii

The roosts of many IUCN-listed cave-roosting bat species are under threat from tourist development in SE Europe and other regions of the world. Much-needed conservation strategies require, among other information, an understanding of their roost movements and population dynamics, which can now be obtained relatively quickly using advanced models. We have studied the long-fingered bat, Myotis capaccinii, an obligate cave-dweller, in Dadia National Park, Greece. The species formed colonies of up to a few thousand individuals and was highly mobile, frequently switching summer roosts up to 39 km apart, even during late pregnancy. The bats migrated to distant hibernacula including a cave in Bulgaria 140 km NW of the Park. Adult recapture probabilities varied with season and sex: low female recapture rates in autumn, relative to spring and summer, indicated non-random temporary emigration following nursery colony dispersal. The opposite pattern was seen in males: increasing recapture rates in the autumn suggest that males gather in these roosts to mate with females in transit. Adult survival (0.86-0.94) was similar in females and males, similar in winter and summer, and comparable to recent estimates for other bats based on similar modelling techniques. Sex-based differences in juvenile recapture suggest female philopatry and male-biased dispersal. Our work shows that protection of M. capaccinii roosts must extend beyond the Park’s and indeed the country’s boundaries: its conservation requires large-scale, trans-national integrated conservation plans. Our results will apply to many other warm-temperate species with similar life history cycles.     

Effects of tropical forest fragmentation on aerial insectivorous bats in a land-bridge island system

Habitat fragmentation causes drastic changes in the biota and it is crucial to understand these modifications to mitigate its consequences. While studies on Neotropical bats have mainly targeted phyllostomid bats, impacts of fragmentation on the equally important aerial insectivores remain largely unexplored. We studied species richness, composition, count abundance and feeding activity of aerial insectivorous bats in a system of land-bridge islands in Panama with acoustic sampling. We predicted negative effects of fragmentation on forest species while bats foraging in open space should remain essentially unaffected. Rarefaction analyses indicated higher species richness for islands than mainland sites. For forest species, multivariate analyses suggested compositional differences between sites due to effects of isolation, area and vegetation structure. Contrary to our expectations, count abundance of forest species was similar across site categories. Feeding activity, however, was curtailed on far islands compared to near islands. As expected, bats hunting in open space did not reveal negative responses to fragmentation. Interestingly, they even displayed higher abundance counts on far and small islands. On the species level, two forest bats responded negatively to size reduction or site isolation, respectively, while a forest bat and a bat hunting in open space were more abundant on islands, irrespectively of island isolation or size. Our findings suggest that small forest remnants are of considerable conservation value as many aerial insectivores intensively use them. Hence high conservation priority should be given to retain or re-establish a high degree of forest integrity and low levels of isolation.     

Influence of temperature in roost selection by Pipistrellus pygmaeus (Chiroptera): relevance for the design of bat boxes

The soprano pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pygmaeus) is a house-dwelling bat, whose maternity colonies are often affected by exclusion from buildings in southern Europe. Bat boxes with a suitable thermal behaviour can provide alternative roosts. However, this is particularly difficult to achieve in hot climates, where boxes may overheat. We studied roost temperatures and roost thermal preferences of this bat in attics and roofs in a Mediterranean region. Roosts reached high temperatures, experienced great thermal fluctuations and had wide spatial thermal ranges. Bats preferred the warmest locations within roosts, indicating that they are a heat tolerant species. However, they avoided temperatures of 40 °C and above, suggesting that this is the upper limit of the species thermally neutral zone. The study of experimental sets of white, grey and black boxes demonstrated that the latter were the ones that most often reached the temperatures observed in roosts in buildings. They were also the ones occupied by larger numbers of bats. These results suggest that, even in hot Mediterranean climates, black boxes are the best option as alternative roosts for evicted colonies. However, on particularly hot days, bats left them, suggesting that black boxes could be improved by creating a wider thermal range.     

Conservation importance of limestone karst outcrops for Palaeotropical bats in a fragmented landscape

Limestone karst landscapes are important for biodiversity yet are increasingly threatened by development activities such as mining. Furthermore, karsts are often scattered and isolated by agriculture, and are rarely considered in landscape planning because of a paucity of biodiversity data. We determined the conservation significance of an isolated limestone karst outcrop for insectivorous bats by quantifying the influence of this roosting resource on local assemblage structure across a fragmented landscape in peninsular Malaysia. Using a combination of rank abundance, gradient and randomisation analyses, we demonstrate that bat assemblages at nine forest sites are structured following a spatial gradient of increasing distance from a karst roosting resource. The assemblage at our karst site was dominated by a superabundance of three cave-roosting species, two of which were also found to dominate assemblages up to 11 km away. Cave-roosting bats exhibited a significant decay in abundance related to the distance from karst, with sites closest to karst also characterised by a rarity of tree cavity/foliage-roosting species that were otherwise common. Gradient analysis revealed that differences in assemblage composition were largely associated with the distance from the karst and, to a lesser extent, forest isolation and area. Our findings suggest that isolated karst outcrops can serve as important population reservoirs for cave-roosting bats, which subsidise diversity levels in forest fragments that might otherwise be expected to decline over time. While conservation efforts need to focus on maintaining large areas of connected forest, landscape management needs to ensure protection of karsts as point resources for cave-roosting bats.     

Habitat associations of bats in Northern Ireland: implications for conservation

Agricultural intensification in Northern Ireland has brought about large-scale changes to the landscape with a detrimental effect on biodiversity. Between 1996 and 1998, we surveyed a stratified random sample of 1 km squares for bats using a spot-sample technique and time expansion bat detector to establish linear and area habitat associations. Bats strongly selected water bodies with bankside vegetation, treelines, and deciduous and mixed woodland edge, avoiding open areas such as upland/unimproved grassland and improved grassland. Of three sympatric pipistrelle species (Pipistrellus pipistrellus, P. pygmaeus and P. nathusii), two were shown to forage in different habitats; P. pipistrellus being more of a ‘generalist’, foraging in a wider variety of habitats than P. pygmaeus, a ‘specialist’ which foraged in a smaller range of habitats. Nyctalus leisleri selected parkland/amenity grassland, deciduous woodland edge and rivers/canals and avoided improved grassland, hedgerows, whilst Myotis spp. selected deciduous woodland centre, lake/reservoir margins and rivers/canals. Reduction in area and quality of inland water, deciduous woodlands and field boundaries in Northern Ireland may impact on bat populations. Habitat management should focus on improving those habitats which are selected by bats, including the maintenance and enhancement of connecting linear habitats.     

Habitat selection of endangered and endemic large flying-foxes in Subic Bay, Philippines

Large flying-foxes in insular Southeast Asia are the most threatened of the Old World fruit bats due to high levels of deforestation and hunting and effectively little local conservation commitment. The forest at Subic Bay, Philippines, supports a rare, large colony of vulnerable Philippine giant fruit bats (Pteropus vampyrus lanensis) and endangered and endemic golden-crowned flying-foxes (Acerodon jubatus). These large flying-foxes are optimal for conservation focus, because in addition to being keystone, flagship, and umbrella species, the bats are important to Subic Bay’s economy and its indigenous cultures. Habitat selection information streamlines management’s efforts to protect and conserve these popular but threatened animals. We used radio telemetry to describe the bats’ nighttime use of habitat on two ecological scales: vegetation and microhabitat. The fruit bats used the entire 14,000 ha study area, including all of Subic Bay Watershed Reserve, as well as neighboring forests just outside the protected area boundaries. Their recorded foraging locations ranged between 0.4 and 12 km from the roost. We compared the bats’ use to the availability of vegetative habitat types, riparian areas, and bat trees. The fruit bats’ locations showed a preference for undisturbed forest types and selection against disturbed and agricultural areas. Bat locations also showed selection for particular fruiting/flowering bat trees. The bats showed strong preference for riparian areas; locations were in riparian areas over four times more than expected. From these results we recommend that management focus flying-fox conservation efforts on undisturbed forest and riparian areas.     

Species-specific barrier effects of a motorway on the habitat use of two threatened forest-living bat species

It is generally recognized that roads can adversely affect local animal populations but little is known how roads affect bats. In particular, no study compared the response of bats that differ in foraging ecology to motorways that cut through the breeding habitat. As bats are key species in conservation, such data are urgently needed for designing management plans. Using radio-telemetry, mist netting, and mark-recapture data we investigated the effects of a motorway with heavy traffic on the habitat use of two threatened forest-living bats. We compared barbastelle bats (Barbastella barbastellus), which forage in open space, to Bechstein’s bats (Myotis bechsteinii), which glean prey from the vegetation. Five of six radio-tracked barbastelle bats crossed the motorway during foraging and roost switching, flying through underpasses and directly over the motorway. In contrast, only three of 34 radio-tracked Bechstein’s bats crossed the motorway during foraging, all three using an underpass. Bechstein’s bats, unlike barbastelle bats, never crossed the motorway during roost switching. Moreover, only in Bechstein’s bats individuals foraging close to the motorway had smaller foraging areas than individuals foraging further away, whereas other forest edges had no such effect. Our data show that motorways can restrict habitat accessibility for bats but the effect seems to depend on the species’ foraging ecology and wing morphology. We suggest that motorways have stronger barrier effects on bats that forage close to surfaces than on bats that forage in open space, and discuss the implications of our findings for bat conservation during road construction.     

The distribution of cave-dwelling bats and conservation status of underground habitats in Northwestern Turkey

The distribution and abundance of cave-dwelling bats were investigated in the Thrace region of northwest Turkey. Data were collected in two periods, January-March and April-May 2001, from 32 underground sites, 25 of which had not been surveyed previously. Approximately 76,000 bats representing 13 species were recorded. The most abundant species were Miniopterus schreibersii, Rhinolophus euryale, Myotis myotis/blythii, Myotis capaccinii, and Rhinolophus ferrumequinum. The roosts were evaluated for their conservation importance. The most important sites in Turkish Thrace are Dupnisa and Koyunbaba. The Dupnisa Cave serves as a hibernaculum to approximately 28,000 bats representing five species. The Koyunbaba Cave is a nursery roost to approximately 23,000 bats of six species. Presently, none of the caves in the region has adequate protection and some bat populations are under serious threat.     

Roost selection by barbastelle bats (Barbastella barbastellus, Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in beech woodlands of central Italy: consequences for conservation

We investigated roost selection by Barbastella barbastellus in a mountainous area of central Italy. Twenty-five bats, mostly lactating females, were radio-tracked to 33 roost trees. Trees in unmanaged woodland were favoured as roost trees; woodland subject to limited logging was used in proportion to availability, and areas where open woodland and pasture occurred were avoided. Selection depended on tree condition (dead beech trees were preferred) and height (roost trees were taller than random ones). Cavity selection was based on cavity type, height and entrance direction: roost cavities were mainly beneath loose bark, at a greater height above ground and facing south more frequently than random cavities. Untouched areas of mature woodland should be preserved to provide roosting conditions for B. barbastellus. In logged areas, harvesting protocols should save dead and mature trees; frequent roost switching and small colony size imply that large numbers of roost trees are needed.     

Effects of Key deer herbivory on forest communities in the lower Florida Keys

Ungulate herbivory can have strong impacts on plant communities, but these impacts are rarely considered in recovery plans of endangered species. This study examined the effects of the endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) on its environment in the lower Florida Keys. The Key deer population has increased to over 700 deer from approximately 50 deer in the 1950s; however, approximately 75% of the population resides on only a few islands (Big Pine, No Name, Big Munson) where Key deer herbivory on forest communities may be substantial. Effects of deer herbivory on plant densities were estimated on these islands using vegetation quadrats in hardwood hammock, buttonwood transition, and mangrove wetlands and compared to nine other islands with intermediate or low deer densities. On islands with high deer density, densities of preferred woody plant species <1.2 m tall (within Key deer reach) were significantly lower than islands with lower deer densities, while densities of some nonpreferred species were significantly higher. Deer exclosures established in hardwood hammock on a high-density deer island revealed a mean increase in abundance/height of preferred woody species inside exclosures, while nonpreferred species significantly increased in open plots. We conclude that on high deer density islands, highly preferred plant species might eventually fail to regenerate and unpalatable plant species may become dominant. Careful criteria need to be developed to maintain Key deer numbers above an endangered species status yet below levels that are destructive to local forest species.     

Intra-specific effects of forest loss on the distribution of the forest-dependent northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis)

Forest fragmentation by the expansion of human activities is acknowledged as an important factor driving declines of forest species worldwide and quantitatively characterizing this trend is essential to understanding the response of populations of forest-dependent species. To examine the impacts of forest cover loss and changes in composition on forest-dependent bats, we examined the effects of these factors on the distribution of the northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) in a case study. We surveyed forest fragments in the forest-agricultural landscape of Prince Edward Island, Canada, to assess the occupancy of bats in fragments. Logistic regression and multimodel inference using Akaike’s information criteria were used to identify potentially important predictor variables influencing the distribution of the northern long-eared bat at the fragment and landscape level and quantified their effects. A compositional variable, area of deciduous stands, was found to be the best predictor of the presence of M. septentrionalis. We found the effects of fragmentation were greatest at the fragment level for females and at the landscape level for males. This case study emphasizes the importance of examining intra-specific resource selection in how it affects the response of a forest-dependent species to fragmentation.     

Autumn swarming behaviour of Natterer’s bats in the UK: Population size, catchment area and dispersal

Many species of temperate bats visit underground sites in autumn, prior to hibernation, and chase each other in and around the entrances in an event known as autumn swarming. It has been suggested that swarming is a mating event that facilitates gene flow between bats from otherwise isolated summer colonies. We describe swarming behaviour at a cluster of four caves in the North of England and provide direct evidence for seasonal migration of Natterer’s bats (Myotis nattereri ) between these caves and many summer nursery roosts in a catchment area of at least 60 km radius. Mark-recapture analysis suggests that an estimated 2000-6000 Natterer’s bats use the three best-studied caves, together with smaller numbers of four other species: M. daubentonii, M. brandtii, M. mystacinus and Plecotus auritus. Recaptures also show that there is a small interchange of bats between these three caves, which are 0.6-1.5 km apart. Capture rates, automatic logging and video recordings at one cave suggest that an average 310-400 bats visit the cave each night. Mating at swarming sites would be particularly important for gene flow if a species showed no other dispersal pattern. We provide evidence for natal philopatry, with little or no dispersal, in both sexes of Natterer’s bats. The protection of swarming sites is discussed in light of our findings.     

The importance of cenotes in conserving bat assemblages in the Yucatan, Mexico

In the Yucatan, cenotes or water sinkholes formed by the dissolution of limestone and surrounded with a characteristic dense layer of heterogeneous vegetation, are the main sources of water for plant and animal assemblages. We investigated their importance to bats by comparing the assemblage structure and diversity between tropical forest and pastureland, with and without cenotes. We set ground level mist nets, sub-canopy nets and harp traps for 96 nights and caught 2819 bats of 26 species and six families. Forest had a greater bat species diversity and abundance than pastureland, as well as rare and threatened species. In forest, sites with and without cenotes had a similar bat assemblage structure and diversity, whereas in pastureland there was a greater species diversity and abundance and number of rare and threatened species at cenotes than sites without cenotes. Chrotopterus auritus and Micronycteris schmidtorum, both threatened in Mexico, and Eptesicus furinalis, were exclusively captured at cenotes. We suggest that it may be the vegetation around cenotes rather than the water bodies per se that attracts many bat species in pastureland. Cenotes are threatened by nitrate contamination from untreated domestic and animal waste and fertilizers and the removal of vegetation to allow livestock access to water. In Yucatan’s agricultural landscapes, protection of cenotes and their characteristic vegetation is key not only for bat conservation but also because they represent potential seed sources for the regeneration of the lowland forest, in which bats play key roles as pollinators and seed dispersers.     

Bats in continuous forest, forest fragments and in an agricultural mosaic habitat-island at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico

In order to document the responses of bats to destruction and fragmentation of their natural habitat and the value of different types of man-made vegetation for bat conservation in the Neotropics, bats were sampled with mist nets to compare species richness and species composition in a tract of continuous forest, forest fragments and a habitat-island consisting of a mosaic of forest and arboreal crops in Los Tuxtlas, southern Mexico. We captured 3835 bats representing 39 species: 76% were captured in continuous forest, 74% in the mosaic habitat and 87% in forest fragments. In the mosaic habitat we captured 43% of the total number of bats, 33% in the forest fragments and 24% in continuous forest. On average the habitats studied had 64% species in common. Evidence of continuous breeding activity was determined for a high number of species at the three habitats (> 70% lactating and 65% with embryos). A few bat species (Carollia brevicauda, Pteronotus parnelli, Sturnira lilium, Artibeus jamaicensis, Dermanura phaeotis, Vampyrodes caraccioli, Glossophaga soricina, Dermanuta toltecus, Cheoroniscus godmani, Platyrrhinus helleri) dominated the sample, but their relative dominance varied among habitats. Recapture of bats provided evidence for inter-habitat movement. The co-occurrence of the three habitats helps conserve a diverse assemblage of bat species in the local landscape.     

Microbial communities in forest floors under four tree species in coastal British Columbia

We compare forest floor microbial communities in pure plots of four tree species (Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Picea sitchensis) replicated at three sites on Vancouver Island. Microbial communities were characterised through community level physiological profiles (CLPP), and profiling of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA).Microbial communities from cedar forest floors had higher potential C utilisation than the other species. The F layer of the forest floor under cedar contained significantly higher bacterial biomass (PLFA) than the F layer under the other three tree species. There were differences in microbial communities among the three sites: Upper Klanawa had the highest bacterial biomass and potential C utilisation; this site also had the highest N availability in the forest floors. Forest floor H layers under hemlock and Douglas-fir contained greater biomass of Gram positive, Gram negative bacteria and actinomycetes than F layers based on PLFA, and H layers under spruce contained greater biomass of Gram negative bacteria than F layers. There were no significant differences in bacterial biomass between forest floor layers under cedar. Fungal biomass displayed opposite trends to bacteria and actinomycetes, being lowest in cedar forest floors, and highest in the F layer and at the site with lowest N availability. There were also differences in community composition among species and sites, with cedar forest floors having a much lower fungal:bacterial ratio than spruce, hemlock and Douglas-fir. The least fertile Sarita Lake site had a much greater fungal:bacterial ratio than the more fertile San Juan and Upper Klanawa sites. Forest floor layer had the greatest effect on microbial community structure and potential function, followed by site, and tree species. The similarity in trends among measures of N availability and microbial communities is further evidence that these techniques provide information on microbial communities that is relevant to N cycling processes in the forest floor.     

Growth and competitiveness of the New Zealand tree species Podocarpus cunninghamii is reduced by ex-agricultural AMF but enhanced by forest AMF

The composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities found in agricultural systems has been found to be very different to that of forest. The implications of this, if any, for the restoration of indigenous forest on ex-agricultural land is poorly understood. This study investigated the effect that AMF communities isolated from ex-agricultural and forest soils have on the growth of an indigenous New Zealand tree species (Podocarpus cunninghamii). The forest AMF community was isolated from a remnant stand of P. cunninghamii forest and the ex-agricultural AMF from a retired grazing grassland. In addition, the study examined how the two AMF communities affected the competitiveness of P. cunninghamii when grown in competition with an invasive grass species (Agrostis capillaris), which is frequently dominant on ex-agricultural land in New Zealand. P. cunninghamii growth was significantly decreased by inoculation with ex-agricultural AMF compared to forest AMF. Furthermore, the forest AMF community was able to significantly increase P. cunninghamii root production when in competition with A. capillaris. The findings suggest that when attempting to restore indigenous forest on ex-agricultural land, inoculation of tree seedlings with appropriate forest AMF may improve their growth and survival.