Quo Vadimus?

Abstract

Deforestation has caused the collapse of past civilisations, including those of Easter Island, the Mayas of Central America, and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia. To avoid a similar fate, we should be prepared to undertake forceful and effective forestry action. This will entail food security and rural development; an increase in income for farmers and safe environments for indigenous peoples; empowerment of women and local groups; and family planning.

At an operational level forestry measures we should focus on include plantation forestry, agroforestry and the regeneration and rehabilitation of secondary forests. If such action is to succeed, and if global deforestation is to be avoided, it will require a well guided process of international cooperation. The internationalization of the Model Forest Program puts new impetus in this direction.     

Comanaged Forests in West Bengal

Abstract

The forests of West Bengal have recently come under a comanagement initiative called Joint Forest Management. This paper will examine changing forestry regimes in southern West Bengal since the 1930s to suggest that the redefinition of forest management in the region since the mid 1980s cannot adequately be explained in terms of property rights. The nature of village community, overlapping jurisdictions of different agencies and groups in forest management, and the nature of expertise qualifying the scope of jurisdictions-that of foresters and villagers-are intersecting issues that have to be analyzed to understand the institutional politics of comanaging natural resources worldwide.     

Comparison of Forest Biomass Across a Human-Induced Disturbance Gradient in Nepal's Schima-CastanopsisForests

Abstract

This paper presents estimations of aboveground tree biomass (combined for boles and branches) in Nepal's Schima-Castanopsisdominated warm-temperate forests. The biomass estimations are presented for five forest stands purposively sampled in a larger study to represent different harvesting intensities. Two categories of biomass estimates are provided: (1) for living trees that are standing, and (2) for cut trees that have been removed. Biomass of standing trees were estimated by using diameter at breast height (dbh) and total height measurements as predictor variables in appropriate regression models. Biomass of cut trees were estimated in two steps: measurements of stump diameters and heights were used first to predict dbh and total heights of cut trees; these values were then regressed to obtain biomass estimates for the missing trees. Data were gathered from 2,361 live trees and 2,962 stumps in 170 sample plots across the five forest stands. Estimates of mean standing-alive biomass ranged from a minimum of 16 ton/ha in the severely disturbed forest to a maximum of 479 ton/ha in a relatively undisturbed (reference) forest. Estimates of mean cut biomass ranged from a minimum of 24 ton/ha in a second reference forest to a maximum of 183 ton/ha in the severely disturbed forest. The biomass estimates in the relatively-undisturbed, reference forests are well above the 95% upper confidence interval of the global mean. Similar findings of high productivity have been reported for temperate forests of the Central Himalaya in India and Eastern Himalaya in Sik-kim. The findings of this study in the Nepalese Central Himalaya support the conclusion that productivity potential is high in the temperate Himalayan forests. The study's findings and methodology should be useful for preliminary development of guidelines in the region to regulate forest biomass growth, yield, and harvest.     

Forest Structure Under Different Management Regimes in the Western Lowlands of Nepal

ABSTRACT

For landscape level conservation and rural sustenance, forests outside of protected areas are becoming increasingly important. Since most outside forests in the lowlands of Nepal are under government control and utilized as open access resources, their feasibility to achieve these objectives is questionable. We compared forests inside (with three decades of strict protection) and outside of protected areas (under government control and proposed as community forests) to assess the ecological sustainability of outside forests and to provide baseline data on structure of outside forests so that effectiveness of community forestry (after implementation) can be evaluated in the future. Our results indicate that outside forests were in a degraded condition with low tree, sapling and seedling densities and lower species diversity. Trees in lower dbh (diameter at breast height) classes were absent in these forests. Although the canopy layer was not significantly different, the ordination of plots and species showed that species composition of understory and the ground layer were different than protected forests. The present condition of outside forests is not only ecologically unsustainable but also cannot fulfill the demands for forest products of local people. The inefficiency of government to monitor against exploitation has been responsible for present conditions. We recommend that community forestry programs, which are successful in improving conditions of degraded forests in the mountains of Nepal, should be widely implemented in lowland areas (Terai) and proposed community forests should be handed over to local communities as soon as it is practicable.     

Community Forestry in the State of Uttarakhand,India: Not Meeting the Needs of the Villagers

This community forestry case study examines village forest councils (van panchayat) in India’s northern state of Uttarakhand. We describe forest stocking levels of 20 community forests and address the question of whether these forests are in a position to provide commodity resources, such as fuelwood and fodder, on a sustainable basis. In addition, we report on the perceptions of the villagers on whether their respective community forest is meeting their fuelwood and fodder needs. At the biophysical level, none of the community forests were in a position to provide fuelwood and fodder on a sustainable basis. Most forests did not have adequate overstory stocking, and there was no evidence of deliberate management to improve the situation. Interviews with 400 villagers (20 in each village) supported the field findings. Villagers unanimously reported that their respective community forest was inadequate in supplying commodity needs. Furthermore, they wished the Forest Department would provide more technical and financial assistance to guide them with forest management needs. Women are a critical part of community forestry as they are the primary gatherers of fuelwood and fodder. Although the perceptions of women toward forest management issues are important, our interviews with female villagers indicate they play a passive role in decision-making. Decentralization in natural resources management sounds good at the theoretical level as it provides villagers with some authority and autonomy, but it cannot be effectively implemented without professional guidance coupled with resources. The villagers are ready and willing to improve the situation, but they do not have the resources to make change unilaterally—they need professional and financial support from the Forest Department.     

Barriers to Sustainable Forestry in Central America and Promising Initiatives to Overcome Them

Summary

Over the past decades, Central America has suffered some of the highest deforestation rates worldwide. Vast tracts of forest have been converted to agriculture and pasture, encouraged by ill-designed government policies and perverse incentives. Recently, however, progress has been made toward more sustainable use of forest resources by adjusting forest policies, decentralizing forest administration, and providing conducive incentives through environmental service payments and forest certification. Valuable forest management experiences have been gained by indigenous and peasant communities. Community forestry in Central America is being increasingly recognized by national governments. Examples include the community concessions in Peten, Guatemala, and community-based forest operations in Honduras and Nicaragua. Stakeholder networks have been established that strengthen horizontal and vertical alliances among wood producers and manufacturers and that help promote both community development and forest conservation. However, illegal logging, poor law enforcement, and lack of economic viability of forest management involving nontraditional species still provide barriers to the sustainable management of tropical broadleaved forests in the region. Future challenges include improved governance through decentralized forest administration, private sector involvement, and third-party certification. To improve traceability and value adding, development of integrated supply chains of forest and wood products is recommended.     

Community forestry for revitalising rural ecosystems: A case study

A case study focusing on the socio-economic and ecological aspects of a forest-based village, Debrasai, in the Singhbhum District of Bihar, India was undertaken in 1980 to evolve village-specific community forestry package programmes that could bring stability to the village both economically as well as ecologically. The village extending over 365.07 ha is inhabited by 361 people comprising 195 males and 166 females in 81 households. The villagers are by and large dependent on agriculture and forestry for their livelihood. The largest proportion of the land in the village is under agriculture whereas forests, in a highly degraded state, occupy only 5.7% of the total area. The villagers exploit the protected forests in their vicinity removing nearly 350.9 mt of fuelwood, 22.8 mt of small timber and 393.4 mt of fodder annually.The village has a manpower potential of 40 035 man days a year. Agriculture is the main source of employment at the moment absorbing 14 266 man days. The non-agricultural sector provides employment to an extent of 4433 man days. Fresh employment opportunities are needed to absorb nearly 53% of man days of the village at present unused. Three land-resource, skill-based package programmes, a tasar silk culture, an energy plantation, and dairying have been suggested to generate employment opportunities and to meet the basic needs of the villagers. About 115 ha of the hitherto neglected land resource has been located in the village to sustain such community forestry (CF) programmes. Tasar culture suggested on 35 ha will alone generate employment to an extent of 18 690 man days from the fourth year of tasar silk plantation. A plantation, to provide energy and fodder, on 25 and 30 ha respectively is expected to yield fuelwood, timber and fodder to more than satisfy village needs. A dairy has been recommended as it will generate income, provide nutrition and promote gobar gas production — an alternative energy source to fuelwood. The cost—benefit analysis of these projects indicates their economic feasibility with the cost likely to be recovered in 4.5 years. Debrasai being an agricultural village, a land-inequity compensatory scheme has been suggested for CF project net benefit sharing, ensuring reasonable benefit flows to the landless and marginal farmers.     

Conserving Forests in Privatized Commons: Trends and Management Options in an Ifugao Village,Philippines

This study addresses the question, ‘How can remaining forests be conserved when these are already individually privatized, and when the people prefer landuses other than forestry?’ These changes in landuse and forest ownership are demonstrated through a case study of a village in Ifugao, Philippines. A rapid and continued conversion of forest into agricultural land is observed, particularly for vegetable farming. Traditionally, most of the village total land area was under communal land ownership, but now almost half is under de facto private ownership. This transition in land (including forest) ownership is generally attributed to increased demand for land which is further attributed to changes in peoples’ values towards wealth accumulation rather than redistribution, greater integration to the market economy and a shift towards commercial agriculture. Past forest policies have been ineffective in regulating the landuse largely because they have not reflected local reality, and this appears to be true with the present national forest management strategy of community-based forest management. It is argued that the granting of land titles will improve forest conservation because it will improve the enforcement of forest laws and related contractual agreements. Based on the reality of private land ownership, it is further argued that forest policy in IP land should include private (individual, family or household) forest management. Given the possibility that indigenous people may prefer landuses other than forestry or may sell their property for various reasons, policies should regulate landuse as well as make it legal for IPs to transfer rights of ownership to ‘outsiders’. There is scope to improve the implementation of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Philippines.     

Analysis of three crucial elements of REDD+ in participatory forest management

Abstract

It is claimed that reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) could contribute to sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks as well as having the potential to deliver significant social and environmental co-benefits (+). From the perspectives of local factors and broader governance issues related to REDD+, this study aims to explore findings related to three crucial elements, commitment, transparency and continuity, implemented jointly with participatory forest management in Tanzania in the case of the REDD+ mechanism. This paper argues that commitment and transparent systems are needed at village level, as well as at the various levels of forest governance and among the donors, in order for REDD+ benefits to be shared equitably at the REDD+ project level. Any REDD+ project should include safeguards that recognise and protect the continuity of multipurpose functions of the forest to local people and avoid dependence on external payments.     

Forest Taxes,Timber Concessions,and Policy Choices in the Amazon

Abstract

In many countries of Africa and Asia, timber production is dominated by concession contracts in public forests. In the neo-tropics, however, timber production occurs on both public and private lands; a mixture that moves countries of the neo-tropics towards the complex systems of forestry sectors in the developed world. Therefore, much of the forest taxation and public forest management literature that currently exists is pertinent to new forest policy decisions in developing countries. Unfortunately, the similarities between forest policies in the neo-tropics and those of developed countries have largely been ignored. This paper begins the process of bridging that gap to show how existing literature is important to the design of timber concessions and accompanying policy instrument design. Although the principles we discuss here apply in any mixed harvest forest economy, we use Brazil as an example because it is in the process of adopting a system of timber concessions in national forests. In our discussion, we suggest that concessions are not a perfect substitute for private forestry in the neo-tropics; concession and other instrument policies must be designed jointly; and because concession policies and government revenue objectives may be linked, the expansion of concessions must be carefully monitored.     

长江上游低中山常绿阔叶林区森林的生态功能和恢复对策

本文论述了长江上游中低常绿阔叶林区森林的生态功能,认为该区的森林在维持生物多样性,涵养水源,保持水土和农业生态屏障等方面具有不可替代的重要的生态作用;提出了七个恢复对策;（1）改良“杂木林”观念,确立常绿阔叶林的不可替代地位;（2）建立常绿阔叶林自然保护区;（3）积极进行现有人工林的改造;（4）搞好农林结构调整。促进退耕还林;（5）突出流域单元的恢复重建的示范作用;（6）加强科学研究;（7）加强教育,严格执法。     

Targets for maintenance of dead wood for biodiversity conservation based on extinction thresholds

Abstract

Forestry decreases the amount of dead wood, thereby threatening the persistence of many saproxylic (wood-living) organisms. This article discusses how targets for efforts to maintain and restore dead wood in managed forest landscapes should be defined. Several studies suggest extinction thresholds for saproxylic organisms. However, because the thresholds differ among species, the relationship between species richness and habitat amount at the local scale is probably described by a smoothly increasing curve without any distinct threshold. The most demanding species require amounts of dead wood that are virtually impossible to reach in managed forests. This means that unmanaged protected forests are needed. In managed forests, conservation efforts should focus on the landscape scale and on certain types of dead wood, but it is impossible to come up with any particular amount of dead wood that is desirable at the forest stand level.     

Agroforestry systems in the rural landscape – a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India

A mid altitude (700–1200 m amsl.) village in Garhwal Himalaya was analysed in terms of energy and economic efficiency of different land use-land cover types constituting the landscape. Simultaneous agroforestry, sequential agroforestry, home garden and community forests accounted for 27.47%, 27.47%, 1.1% and 43.96% of the total geographical area of the village. Simultaneous agroforestry is the traditional land use involving substantial input of manure derived from forest litter and animal excreta and was practised on terraced slopes in private ownership. Tree cover in this system was represented by nine species with total average density of 390 trees ha⁻¹, Grewia optiva and Boehmeria rugulosa being the most dominant. Sequential agroforestry system involving slash-burn practice and cultivation on unterraced slopes without tillage and manuring was an illicit land use on community lands where forestry land use is desirable as per the government policy. Per ha annual energy input in simultaneous agroforestry system was 305267 MJ compared to 279 MJ in sequential agroforestry and 27047 MJ in home garden. In monetary terms, highest per ha annual output was obtained from simultaneous agroforestry (Rs 25370, Rs 35 = US$1) followed by home garden (Rs 18200) and sequential agroforestry (Rs 9426). Local food, fodder and fuelwood production was in excess of the local consumption. While most of the surplus food was stored, surplus fodder and fuelwood were sold for cash. Production in simultaneous agroforestry system in private lands was sustained with substantial biomass and nutrient inputs from the community and government forests. Land use-land cover changes in the region are driven by the interaction of ecological, policy and human factors. It is concluded that present policy of treating forests and agriculture as closed and independent ecological or production systems needs to be replaced by an integrated land use policy. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Human Influence on Banj Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora,A. Camus) Forests of Central Himalaya

The present study suggests that the impact of human-induced small-scale disturbances (lopping of branches and leaf litter removal) adversely impacts the functioning of banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora, A. Camus) forests of Central Himalaya. Significantly higher (p < .001) biomass stocks, carbon sequestration rates, soil carbon, leaf area index (LAI), litter fall, and faster litter decomposition rates were observed in least human influenced (LHI) forests as compared to moderately human influenced (MHI) forests and highly human influenced (HHI) forests. Three replicate forest stands of each category were selected for the observation. The study is used as a background to suggest alternative strategies to conserve the forests, taking into account the social and economic concerns of the village community.     

Contribution to the Restoration of Mixed Forests in Central Vietnam

This article investigates options for reforestation in degraded forests in Central Vietnam within the context of sustainable forestry and presents a forest management plan for the forests around the community of Phong My. In the past, the area was damaged during the war between Vietnam and the United States and after that by overcutting. Forests have gradually been degraded and now they are replaced by plantations of fast-growing Acacia (Acacia mangium). After final harvests, the stand remnants are burnt and the burnt area is again regenerated via artificial regeneration of Acacia. Here, we propose several mixtures in which Acacia stands can be augmented with other tree species. A proposed system of afforestation and subsequent management is given here with the goal of encouraging mixed species, multiple cohort stands, and disincentivizing the method of slash-and-burn. The proposed afforestation patterns were also used to calculate the future number of seedlings required to enable the enlargement of quality forests at the expense of degraded ones.     

Forestry tradition in the long term A Review of Franz Heske (1927/1928): 'A general review of post-war forestry in Central Europe'

The review of Heske's analysis after 70 years shows a generaltrend in increasing timber production for West Germany and Austriaas well as for the central planned economies of Eastern Europe.The growing stock has almost doubled. Economic results of forestry, however, decreased significantlyafter World War II in West Germany and Austria. Prices of rawwood in real value in 1990 reached only half the figure of 1950.Production costs could not be brought down enough to guaranteeforest profits. At the same time, demands for non-wood benefitsincreased. A mixed ownership of state, community and privatewill again characterize forestry in all Central European countries,as the young democracies started re-privatizations of forestland after 1989. Due to changes in agriculture the type of smallprivate ownership has changed and increasing needs for budgetfundmg caused reform activities in all state forests. So broaderconcepts of forest policy will be needed in the future. Sustainability, the key issue of Central European silviculture,today is as ‘modern’ as it was in 1927. Heske'spostulate of general continuity in all silvicultural procedurehas survived. Ecological development is now seen as the basisof silviculture in sustainable multiple use forestry in CentralEurope.     

Institutional arrangement and typology of community forests of Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland of North-East India

Most community forests in hill regions of northeast India have been managed by traditional local institutions for centuries and most of these institutions remain functional even today. Higher forest coverage on private and community lands as compared to government land indicates that traditional institutions effectively manage community forests in the region. The present study was conducted through a survey of literature and field work using participatory research tools viz., PRA exercises, group discussions and questionnaire interviews with key informants in northeast India. We categorized the institutions involved in conservation and management of forests into three major types: traditional, quasi-traditional and modern. Traditional institutions with hierarchal structure were found in all states and are intact and functional in the state of Meghalaya. Quasi-traditional institutions, a blend of traditional and modern institutions were prevalent in Nagaland while modern institutions have almost replaced traditional institutions in Mizoram. We recorded at least eleven types of community forests viz., group of village forest, village forest, restricted forest, sacred forest, clan forest, cemetery forest, regeneration forest, bamboo forest, recreation forest, village reserved forest and medicinal plantation in villages of three states. The tribal people, through long-term trial and error experiments, have developed an elaborate, functional and generally democratic system of conservation and management of forests and associated natural ecosystems. Several forest and natural resource management lessons can be learnt from the institutional structure and decision making system of the evolving and dynamic institutions of tribal communities of the region.     

FORESTAR：A decision—support system for multi—objective forest management in Northeast China

Past monoculture forestry in China has contributed to countrywide ecological disasters and economic difficulties in forestry regions. China‘s new forestry programs, Natural Forest Conservation Program and Returning Farmlands to Forests Program, provide opportunities for ecosystem management of mountain forests in China. A decision support system, FORE-STAR, has been developed for better managing and protecting natural forests in Changbai Mountain area. It uses GIS-based forest inventory data at a scale of forestry bureau. The first version contains two sub-modules: forest operation and forest res-toration. Under each sub-module, users can compare several decision options and make optimal choices. It can help field for-esters, forest managers, and policy makers make multi-objective and consistent decisions in planning forest management at hierarchical administrative scales.     

Wood transportation machine replacement using goal programming

ABSTRACT

Farm tractor?+?trailers play a key role in wood transportation after forests are logged. Despite of the fact that a forwarder is a forestry vehicle that carries felled logs for shorter distances off the ground, tractors are still used in some forest areas of the world, such as the Hyrcanian forest in northern Iran. This study was conducted to investigate the possibility of using both the light forwarder and forestry trailer instead of a farm tractor?+?trailer in wood transportation. The optimal machine option for wood transportation is determined using goal programming model in the study area. In this paper, multi-objective goals (such as economic, operational, environmental and ergonomic) were considered. The results showed that considering only the economic goal, the contractor could save up to 44% in costs by purchasing and replacing a forestry trailer with a 2-wheel trailer attached to the farm tractor. In addition, considering various goals, a light forwarder could be selected as the optimal machine. Currently, the most important objectives of all forest contractors are to establish economic goals and reduce wood transportation costs. Since other goals, such as environmental and ergonomic, are also important; it is suggested that multi-objective approaches should use for planning.     

近自然森林经营在德国的应用成效分析

[目的]分析德国推行近自然森林经营20年来的经营效果,总结德国推行近自然森林经营的经验。[方法]在明晰近自然森林经营原则的基础上,基于两期(间隔期10年)资源清查数据对比,对德国大面积推行近自然森林经营20年的经营效果进行分析。[结果]两期资源清查数据表明,德国采用近自然经营20年后,针叶林如挪威云杉和欧洲赤松的面积显著减少,阔叶林和针阔混交林面积持续增加;阔叶树种蓄积平均增长量约为15 m~3·hm~(-2),针叶树种蓄积平均增长4 m~3·hm~(-2),挪威云杉是唯一蓄积下降的树种,下降了5 m~3·hm~(-2);近自然度等级变化表明,人工林面积在减少,而近自然森林的面积在增加,甚至符合原始林等级的森林面积也在增加。[结论]实现近自然森林经营的目标是一个长期的过程,联邦政府促进和保护森林的政策以及林场主所采用的先进的森林经营技术也是德国森林每公顷蓄积达到336 m~3的重要原因;在近自然森林经营的原则下,德国森林中针阔混交林比例显著增加;将近自然程度不高的人工林经营转化为近自然的森林生态系统是德国森林经营所面临的主要问题。