Strawberry fruit quality attributes after application of plant growth stimulating compounds

Strawberry plants cv. Camarosa were treated with different plant growth stimulators, in order to examine their effect on both yield and product quality. The treatments comprised an untreated control and a mixture of a seaweed extract plus a commercial mixture of nitrophenolates and a commercial mixture of an auxin (phenothiol) plus gibberellic acid at two dose rates. The plant growth stimulators increased marketable yield and fruit size, while they had no significant impact on fruit juice pH, titratable acidity and total soluble solids concentration. Furthermore, they had no significant effect on fruit organic acid and carbohydrate concentration and on fruit color, although they enhanced total anthocyanin concentration. The antioxidant activity of the fruit juice was slightly higher in the fruits of control treatment, which could be the result of their higher total phenol, o-diphenol, flavonoid and flavanol concentration. When a taste panel took place, the panelists gave the best score to those fruits deriving from plants treated with the mixture of auxin plus gibberellic acid.     

Application of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester reduces mature fruit abscission in Citrus navel cultivars

Summary

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) isopropyl ester has been used extensively, since the 1950’s, to reduce mature fruit abscission in Citrus navel cultivars. However, this synthetic auxin is no longer registered for this purpose in the European Union (EU). 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid (2,4-DP) 2-ethylhexyl ester has been registered in the EU for use in citrus growing and can be an effective replacement for 2,4-D to reduce pre-harvest fruit abscission. Use of the 2-ethylhexyl ester of 2,4-DP sprayed before mature fruit abscission significantly reduced fruit drop in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) ‘Washington navel’ and ‘Navelate’. The magnitude of the response depended on the concentration applied. At 15 mg l^–1, the percentage of abscised fruit was reduced by 50–75% compared to untreated trees, depending on the variety and the orchard. Increasing the concentration applied to 50 mg l^–1 did not improve this response. The response to this auxin was as effective as that obtained with 2,4-D applied on the same day at the same concentration (15 mg l^–1). 2, 4-DP treatment had no effect on skin colour or on the internal and external characteristics of the fruit at harvest.     

Spraying Experiments Against Apple and Pear Scab at Long Ashton and in the West Midlands,Season 1951

Ether extracts were made of samples of black currant berries (var. Seabrook’s Black) collected at weekly intervals from 18 days prior to fertilization until maturity. The extracts were shown to contain two acid auxins (a₁ and a₂), one neutral auxin (a₃), and one acid growth inhibitor (l₁), which could be separated by paper chromatography and assayed in biological tests. The changes in concentration of the three auxins throughout the season were studied in relation to seed and fruit development, fruit growth and fruit drop (“ running off ” and pre-harvest drop). It is suggested that the auxins are produced as by-products of either protein synthesis or hydrolysis taking place in different tissues and organs in a pre-determined order during the growth of the fruit. The rate of fruit growth showed a positive correlation with the concentrations of auxins I and 3, whereas fruit drop was negatively correlated with the concentration of auxin 2.     

肥城桃组培苗诱导、基因转化及其增殖

红里、白里是肥城桃的两个优良品种,但不耐贮藏。为试图利用基因工程解决这一问题,先通过组培将其胚、胚乳、子叶的愈伤组织分别诱导再生植株和芽剥离出茎尖培育成苗。再将肥城桃反义PG基因,通过农杆菌介导转化组培苗,转化苗在含卡那霉素培养基上筛选,获得抗卡那霉素的转基因苗。用研制的增殖培养基培养4～7周,一个苗可生长出14～18分枝的苗,解决了转基因苗获得率低的问题,也满足了对转基因株系进行检测和从组培室到温棚到田间果园过渡栽培和芽接的需求,提高了繁育速率。     

Growth Promoting Substances in The Developing Fruit of Peach (Prunus Persica L.)

Growth substances extracted from the ovules of developing fruits of July Queen, Halehaven and Fall Late peaches–respectively early, midseason and late-maturing cultivars–were studied. Whole and fractionated extracts were bioassayed, and the growth of the fruit and the development of the seed were examined.

Determination of “total” growth-promoting substances during the development of the fruits resulted in concentration curves that were generally similar from year to year. The seeds of each cultivar, regardless of its season of maturation, produced a first flush of growth substances that seemed to be correlated with either nucellus or endosperm development. The second and major growth substance peak came at the time of rapid embryo growth and maximum endosperm development. At this time fruits of July Queen ripened and abscissed. A third flush of growth substance was detected at the same time in Halehaven and Fall Late seeds, at which time the embryo was essentially complete. The mature fruits of Halehaven then abscissed, but Fall Late fruits remained on the tree for another three or four weeks before maturation and abscission. It was concluded that the concentration of seed growth substances as measured here was not related to the final-flush of growth of peach fruits, or to the abscission of mature fruits.

In dissected ovules of Halehaven peaches the endosperm was the most concentrated source of total growth substances on a dry weight basis but, because of its small size, it contributed less of them on a per-seed basis than did the the integuments at first, and later the embryo. The nucellus was a minor source of growth substances, both on a concentration and on a per-ovule basis. Apparently, the total growth substances that constituted the second and major auxin peak in Halehaven peach ovules came mostly from the integuments, endosperm and embryo, whereas the third peak could be attributed almost entirely to substances from the embryo. These studies of individual ovule tissues were made after that period of development during which the first growth substance peak made its appearance.

Studies of growth substances in the flesh of developing peach fruits revealed only trace amounts with no consistent pattern, although there is some evidence that a true picture may not have been obtained because of interference by inhibitors.

Silica gel partition column chromatography showed the presence of several growth-promoting substances which changed qualitatively and quantitatively during the growing season. One of these was probably indole-3- acetic acid, its identification being based primarily on studies by gas chromatography and spectrophotofluorometry.     

银杏成熟胚乳培养的细胞组织学观察

诱导银杏（GinkgobilobaL．）成熟胚乳产生愈伤组织时无需胚的存在。单独使用生长素或在细胞分裂素／生长素为0．5～0．9的范围内均能诱导部分胚乳切块产生愈伤组织。并且在White＋Kt2．7mg·l-1＋2,4－D1．0mg·l-1＋NAA2．0mg·l-1的培养基上,愈伤组织的诱导率最高,达到83．3％。胚乳细胞脱分化进行有丝分裂和无丝分裂,其中无丝分裂可以观察到劈裂和缢裂两种类型。愈伤组织起源于胚乳表皮及其下方2～3层细胞,且愈伤组织的形成需经历一个“假愈伤组织化”阶段。     

荔枝液态胚乳对果实生长和脱落的影响

 以种子正常型的‘白蜡’荔枝品种为试材, 通过针刺抽取液态胚乳的试验, 考察了液态胚乳对果实生长、脱落和大小的影响。研究结果表明, 针刺抽乳和不抽乳处理均显著促进落果和抑制果实的生长, 且处理时期越早, 对果实脱落和生长的影响越大, 如花后30 d处理后8 d的累积落果率达到93.3% ,花后36 d处理后15 d的累积落果率介于73.3% ～80%之间, 对照的累积落果率则均低于10%。针刺抽乳处理导致形成种子败育的小果实, 针刺不抽乳处理导致形成小核的小果实, 对照则产生正常大核种子的大果实, 说明早期种皮和液态胚乳的发育对荔枝果实坐果、种子和果实发育有重要影响。本研究结果直接证实荔枝果实组织间存在着种皮→果皮→假种皮的顺序性影响的“球皮对球胆效应”理论。     

Assessment of volatile and non-volatile organic compounds in the liquid endosperm of young ‘Nam Hom’ coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) at two stages of maturity

SUMMARY

Young coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) fruit collected 6–8 months after anthesis (MAA) contain a high volume of water [20% (w/w)] and can provide a refreshing drink. The present study investigated volatile organic compounds (VOCs), as aroma components, and physico-chemical changes in the liquid endosperm of young ‘Nam Hom’ coconut at two stages of maturity: the one-layer stage (6 MAA) and the two-layer stage (7.0–7.5 MAA) of the flesh. The liquid endosperm of coconut fruit becomes sweeter and more turbid late during maturation. Lauric acid (C_12:0) and myristic acid (C_14:0) were the main free fatty acids in the liquid endosperm of coconut. Short-chain fatty acid (C₁₀–C₁₂) concentrations increased slightly, and longer-chain fatty acid (C₁₄–C₁₈) concentrations declined when fruit matured from the one- to the two-layer stage of flesh. Solvent extractions showed a 1.4-fold increase in the total concentration of VOCs in the liquid endosperm during fruit development. This was related to a major increase in squalene and sterols, to 21.7% (w/w) of the total VOC and non-volatile organic compounds, whereas the concentrations of terpenes and esters remained stable. Although a series of alkanes existed in the liquid endosperm of coconut, the main aroma components were 2-methyl-1-butyl acetate and terpenes such as D-limonene, α-pinene, and 3-carene. We conclude that, when coconut fruit developed from the one- to the two-layered flesh stage, the liquid endosperm not only became sweeter and contained higher concentrations of aroma volatile and non-volatile components, but also became oily and less translucent.     

Naturally occurring auxins and inhibitor and their role in fruit growth and drop of mango ‘Dashehari’

The pattern of fruit growth in mango ‘Dashehari’ (Mangifera indica L.) was sigmoid. Pollinated ovaries and young fruits dropped in two main waves: 0–14 days and 28–35 days. A third wave, a mild one, was continuous and irregular from 35 days after pollination to maturity of the fruit.One acidic and one non-acidic auxin and one acidic inhibitor were detected in the immature fruit. The increase in the levels of auxin corresponded with a period of rapid fruit growth, while high levels of inhibitor tended to correspond with a high rate of fruit drop from pollination to 42 days. The auxins appear to play a major role in the growth of the fruit, whereas the inhibitor appears to cause fruit drop.     

The addition of gibberellic acid to auxin solutions increases sugar accumulation and sink strength in developing auxin-induced parthenocarpic tomato fruits

The effects of the addition of gibberellic acid (GA) to auxin solutions for tomato fruit setting on sugar content and titratable acidity at maturity were investigated in ‘Louis 60’ tomatoes, and sucrolytic enzyme activities and cell development during the early stages of fruit development were examined to explain the physiological mechanisms. Days to maturity and titratable acidity were not affected by GA addition. The sugar concentration of the pericarp was increased by 50 mg L⁻¹ of GA addition in the summer and the spring, but not in the autumn experiment. The product of sugar concentration and fruit weight, which is thought to reflect the amount of sugar per fruit, was higher in GA-treated fruit in every experiment. Beginning 1 day after treatment, cell size was larger in GA-treated fruit and resulted in an increase in pericarp thickness at maturity. These results suggest that GA addition at anthesis can promote an increased sink size of individual pericarp cells immediately after treatment. The activities of VAI and neutral invertase (NI) were higher in GA-treated fruit around 5 days after treatment, and the possibility of VAI and/or NI involvement in sink activity at an early stage of fruit development is suggested.     

桃生长素反应因子和生长素/吲哚乙酸蛋白家族基因的克隆及表达分析

生长素对果实发育起着重要的调控作用。生长素反应因子（auxin response factor,ARF）和生长素/吲哚乙酸蛋白（auxin/indoleacetic acids protein,Aux/IAA）是生长素信号转导系统中的两个关键因子,在转录水平上对生长素参与的生理活动进行调控。为探索生长素调控桃果实发育的机制,选取ARF家族的1 个基因PpARF1,Aux/IAA 家族的5 个基因PpIAA3、PpIAA9、PpIAA17、PpIAA26 和PpIAA29,克隆其全长cDNA 序列并进行生物信息学分析,对它们在桃果实不同发育时期中果皮和种子的表达进行qRT-PCR 检测。序列分析表明：这6 个基因的编码区全长分别为2 037、594、1 194、618、384 和723 bp,分别编码678、197、397、205、127 和240 个氨基酸;氨基酸序列比对分析显示桃PpARF1 蛋白序列和草莓的FvARF1（XP_004300014.1）同源性最高,达到90.56%,PpIAA 家族的5 个蛋白同源性很低,只有23.77%;荧光定量PCR 结果显示,在花后52 d（果实发育硬核期）,PpIAA3 和PpIAA17 在中果皮中的表达量显著升高;PpIAA26、PpIAA29 和PpARF1 在种子中的表达量显著升高。预示生长素可能在桃果实发育硬核期发挥着重要的调控作用。     

Reducing preharvest drop of ‘Temple’ orange fruits by 2,4-D — Role of cellulase in the calyx abscission zone

One or two treatments of 2,4-D (18 p.p.m.) applied to ‘Temple’ orange trees during the last 6 weeks before the regular picking-period in late January, successfully reduced natural preharvest fruit abscission, allowing picking to be delayed by at least one month, and thus producing better external and internal fruit quality. It has been demonstrated for the first time that the delaying effect of auxin treatment on preharvest abscission was directly related to the decrease in the activity of endo- and exo-cellular cellulase. Most of the increase in cellulase activity during the abscission process was, however, due mainly to the activity of exo-cellular cellulase. When frost occurred a few days after application of 2,4-D, the auxin treatment significantly decreased total cellulase activity, thus reducing fruit abscission.The data proved that, except for the difference in the length of time between application and the onset of the hormone effect, the control mechanism of 2,4-D on abscission and on cellulase activity in intact fruit is similar to that previously reported for fruit explants.     

Analysis of effects of auxin on fruit size of tetraploid and diploid tomato fruits

Selfed and auxin-treated fruits of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) were obtained from tetraploid and diploid plants and compared to determine why selfed tetraploid fruits are smaller. Application of auxin to ovaries produced tetraploid fruits as large as normally set (selfed) diploid fruits but led to reduced fruit size in diploid fruits, reflecting a further potential for tetraploid fruit development. The selfed tetraploid fruits were found to be smaller because they had fewer cells per fruit. Cell size (diameter) at the end of fruit development was similar for all fruit types. DNA per cell did not closely match cell size during development, especially during the cell division stage. Protein per cell also failed to follow cell size. Protein per DNA showed one peak at around day 10 of fruit development and possibly a second one at day 30.     

The Hormone Content of the Seed in Relation to Endosperm Development and Fruit Drop in the Apple

Apple seeds at certain stages of development have been shown to contain a hormone which can be extracted with boiling water and which is active in stimulating the development of unpollinated tomato ovaries. Use has been made of this latter fact to detect and measure the amount of hormone present in the seeds at various stages of development, using the methods described in the previous paper (see pp. 19 to 31).

In the variety Beauty of Bath the appearance of the hormone in the seed at 25-30 days after petal-fall corresponded with the cessation of the post-blossom drop, and the disappearance of hormone from the seeds of nearly ripe apples was correlated with the occurrence of the pre-harvest drop. The seeds from “ June drop ” fruitlets of two other varieties contained much less hormone than those from fruitlets remaining attached to the tree, and from this and other evidence it is concluded that this hormone is concerned with the control of fruit drop. It appears to be produced in the endosperm tissue of the seed but not in the embryo. Although it will stimulate the development of tomato ovaries it apparently plays no direct part in initiating fruit growth in the apple. The presence of a second, as yet undetected, hormone with this function is postulated.     

Culture of triploid tissue from the endosperm of an endangered Chilean tree species Gomortega keule

The endangered Chilean tree species Gomortega keule (Mol.) Baillon produces an edible fruit, but is not cultivated at present. Recent advances in micropropagation may allow the further development of this species as a fruit crop. Triploid plants have been regenerated from the endosperm of seed of a number of species. This is the first report on in vitro culture of the seed endosperm of G. keule in order to obtain triploid plants. Callus was formed from endosperm after 1.5 months on 1.0× Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 6-(γ,γ-dimethylallylamino) purine. Shoot primordia developed and produced shoots that could be cultured on Rugini medium containing 0.1 mg l^–1 α-naphthaleneacetic acid and 1 mg l^–1 6-benzyladenine. Shoot primordia cultured on Rugini medium containing 2 g l^–1 activated charcoal produced longer shoots and longer leaves compared to diploid genotypes. Flow cytometry and chromosome observations indicated that the callus tissue and plantlets derived from the seed endosperm were triploid. Endosperm culture represents a feasible method to regenerate triploid plantlets of this tree species within 18 months. Such material may be of value for the genetic improvement and future development of G. keule as a commercial fruit tree species.     

Seed abortion of ‘Tosa-Buntan’ pummelo pollinated with soft-X-irradiated pollens

Cross-pollination was performed with soft-X-irradiated hyuga-natsu pollens (1000 Gy) for ‘Tosa-Buntan’ pummelo (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck). This resulted in the transformation of large and complete seeds into small and empty ones (practically seedless). Although fruit set, fruit retention, total soluble solids content (TSS) and titratable acidity of the juice were not affected, decrement in the fruit size was observed. Two weeks after the pollination, endosperm cell division with free nuclei began in both the non-irradiated and irradiated pollen treatment conditions. Seven weeks after pollination, endosperm division with the cell wall occurred in the non-irradiated pollen treatment conditions; however, the endosperm development ceased in most ovules that underwent the irradiated pollen treatment, and the ovules remained in their free nuclear stage. The delayed degeneration of the ovules, following successful fertilization and commencement of endosperm cell division, allow these seedless fruits to be categorized as pseudo-parthenocarpic.     

Flower morphology and number of aubergine (Solanum melongena L.) in relation to fruit load and auxin application

The effect of fruit load and auxin application on the flower morphology and flower number of two aubergine cultivars was investigated under greenhouse conditions. The flowers of plants that did not set fruit showed only minor fluctuations in flower and pistil mass, and in style and anther length. However, when plants were allowed to set fruit by pollination, flower and pistil mass, and style (but not anther) length were significantly reduced during the stage of fruit growth. Style length was also reduced in flowers formed after fruit had been set parthenocarpically by the application of auxin (IAA), but there was no significant effect of IAA on style length in the absence of fruit development. The number of flowers was reduced in the presence of IAA (with or without fruit set), or following fruit set by pollination. It is suggested that fruit load and development affect flower mass and style length of aubergine whereas auxin influences the number of flowers.     

In vitro studies of controlling tomato puffiness by growth regulators

Tomato puffiness, which occurs after auxin spray under field conditions, was investigated by using the in vitro fruit culture technique. Tomato flowers were cultured in the medium with HCPA for 3 days to induce parthenocarpy and then transferred to other media containing growth regulators.2,4-D supplemented to the basal medium increased fruit weight and degree of puffiness. It was most influential when applied in the early developmental stage.Chemicals such as CCC, SADH, TIBA, which would lower auxin level in the fruit, counteracted puffiness. CCC did not decrease fruit weight, unlike TIBA and SADH.GA₃ also induced puffiness with extremely poor development of locule tissue, apparently different from auxin-induced puffiness. Gibberellin-induced puffiness could not be corrected by CCC.Although BA slightly promoted fruit growth, the effect on puffiness remained unclear.CCC and BCB treatments to potted plants were also successful in correcting puffiness of auxin-treated fruits.     

Effects of auxin application on fruit formation in tomato growing under stress temperatures in the field

Summary

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L. Mill) cultivars Early Urbana and Red Clode were grown in the field at adverse temperatures (stress regimes) until they set fruit in two growing seasons (Autumn and Spring) during 1999 and 2000 in Ahwaz (Southern Iran). To test the effectiveness of auxins in enhancing fruit set, racemes of tomato were sprayed during early fruit set with 25, 50 and 100 mg l^–1 4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid (4-CPA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) followed by two additional applications at three intervals. The control plants were treated with deionized water. At harvest, racemes from autumn and spring plantings that were treated with 4-CPA had more large fruits than the control racemes. In both growing seasons, neither cultivar showed a significant difference in fruit set in plants treated with IBA, compared with controls. The ratio of fruit/flower in all racemes treated with 4-CPA increased significantly compared with the other treatments. However, auxin treatments did not significantly affect the number of flowers per raceme. Plants treated with 4-CPA produced the highest yield of marketable fruit. The greatest increase in total yield and parthenocarpic fruit occurred with 4-CPA treatments. Also, there was little difference between concentrations of 4-CPA on fruit set in both cultivars. It may be concluded that the response of fruit setting in tomato to either low or high temperatures regimes was auxin dependent and that 4-CPA was more effective than IBA.     

番茄生长素响应因子基因SlARF12在果实发育过程中的功能分析

以番茄‘Micro-Tom’为材料,研究了生长素响应因子基因SlARF12 （序列号：HM565127.1）在果实发育过程的生物学功能。实时定量PCR 检测表明,SlARF12在花蕾中表达量逐渐降低,而在授粉后的子房中显著高于去雄后未授粉的子房。利用RNA干扰（RNAi）技术抑制SlARF12表达,对番茄植株营养生长与花的发育没有显著影响,但SlARF12 RNAi果实显著大于野生型与空载转化植株的果实,且开花前去雄未授粉不能形成单性结实的果实。利用半薄切片观察转基因番茄果实早期发育细胞学特性发现,转化植株的果实果皮细胞显著大于对照果实细胞,但是两者果皮细胞层数没有显著差异。基因表达分析发现在SlARF12 RNAi的子房与幼果中细胞分化相关基因CycB1.1和CDKB2.1等的表达水平同对照相比下降,而SlPEC等细胞膨大基因表达量显著高于对照。所以抑制SlARF12可增强果实中细胞膨大相关基因的表达,从而促进果实膨大。以上结果表明,SlARF12可负调控番茄果实膨大但不参与坐果启动调控过程,显示了生长素通过ARF信号精细调控果实发育的各个阶段。