A contemporary overview of silicon availability in agricultural soils

Our current understanding of silicon (Si) availability in agricultural soils is reviewed and knowledge gaps are highlighted. Silicon is a beneficial rather than essential plant nutrient and yield responses to its application have been frequently demonstrated in Si‐accumulator crops such as rice and sugarcane. These crops are typically grown on highly weathered (desilicated) soils where soil solution Si concentrations are low. Increased yields are the result of simultaneous increases in plant tolerance to a wide range of biotic (plant pathogens, insect pests) and abiotic (water shortage, excess salts, metal toxicities) stresses. Traditionally, soil solution Si is viewed as being supplied by dissolution of primary and secondary minerals and buffered by adsorption/desorption of silicate onto Al and Fe hydrous oxide surfaces. In recent years it has become recognized that phytogenic cycling of Si [uptake of Si by plants, formation of phytogenic silica (SiO₂ · nH₂O) mainly in leaves and subsequent return of this silica to soils in plant litter] is the main determinant of soil solution Si concentrations in natural forests and grasslands. Considerable diminution of the phytogenic Si pool in agricultural soils is likely due to regular removal of Si in harvested products. A range of extractants (unbuffered salts, acetate‐based solutions, and acids) can provide valuable information on the Si status of soils and the likelihood of a yield response in rice and sugarcane. The most common Si fertilizers used are industrial byproducts (e.g., blast furnace slag, steel slag, ferromanganous slag, Ca slag). Since agriculture promotes soil desilication and Si is presently being promoted as a broad spectrum plant prophylactic, the future use of Si in agriculture is likely to increase. Aspects that require future research include the role of specific adsorption of silicate onto hydrous oxides, the significance of phytogenic Si in agricultural soils, the extent of loss of phytogenic Si due to crop harvest, the role of hydroxyaluminosilicate formation in fertilized soils, and the effect of soil pH on Si availability.     

Interaction of silicon,iron, and manganese in rice (oryza sativa L.) rhizosphere at low ph in relation to rice growth

Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) nutrition is influenced by the interactions of (Iron) Fe, (Manganese) Mn, and (Silicon) Si in the rhizosphere. A greenhouse experiment was carried out with rice grown in four low‐pH soils (a granitic lateritic red earth, a paddy soil from the red earth, a basaltic latosol, and a paddy soil from the latosol). Rice was grown in pots with the roots confined in rhizobags and the rhizosphere soil and nonrhizosphere soil were analyzed separately for active Si, Fe, and Mn by Tamm's solution. Silicon and Mn concentrations were lower in the rhizosphere soil indicating a depletion which was higher for the basaltic soils and for the paddy soils. Iron concentrations were higher in the rhizosphere soil indicating an accumulation that was higher for granitic soils and for the upland soils. Plant growth response was due mostly to Mn with the basaltic soils supplying toxic amounts and the granitic soils being deficient. Iron accumulation in the rhizosphere caused lower plant uptake of Si, phosphorus (P), and calcium (Ca) and higher Fe and aluminum (Al) absorption leading to the conclusion that Fe deposition on plant roots and in rhizosphere may block the uptake of other nutrients.     

Silicon‐induced cadmium resistance in rice (Oryza sativa)

Silicon (Si)‐induced cadmium (Cd) tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.) was investigated by analyzing Cd uptake, growth, and physiological parameters. Silicon treatments (0.0, 0.2, or 0.6 mM) were added to 6 d–old seedlings, and Cd treatments (0.0 or 5.0 μM) were added to 20 d–old seedlings. Parameters determined included: maximum net CO₂ assimilation (A_max), stomatal conductance (g_smax), and transpiration (E_max) rates at varying intercellular CO₂ concentrations (C_i). Also measured were chlorophyll fluorescence, growth, and Cd‐uptake parameters. Results showed a Si‐induced inhibition of Cd uptake. However, 0.2 mM or 0.6 mM Si treatment concentrations did not differentially inhibit Cd uptake or differentially alleviate Cd‐induced growth inhibition, despite a significant increase in tissue Si concentration due to 0.6 mM Si treatment compared to 0.2 mM Si treatment. Additionally, photosynthesis and chlorophyll‐fluorescence analysis showed that treatment with Cd significantly inhibited photosynthetic efficiency. Interestingly, the addition of 0.2 mM Si, more so than the addition of 0.6 mM Si, significantly alleviated the inhibitory effects of Cd toxicity on photosynthesis and chlorophyll‐fluorescence parameters. Our results suggest that 0.2 mM Si could be close to an optimum Si‐dose requirement for the alleviation of toxicity symptoms mediated by moderate (5 μM) Cd exposure.     

Participation of silicon in cation‐anion balance as a possible mechanism for aluminum and iron tolerance in some gramineae

Abstract

Silicon (Si) has been suggested as a factor in aluminum (Al) tolerance of some species of the gramineae when grown on acid soils. Silicon concentrations are generally much higher in monocot plants than in dicot plants, and the phenomenon is related to the fact that mineral cation:mineral anion uptake ratio is much higher in dicots than in monocots. When large amounts of anionic Si, supposedly as sulfate (SO₄ ^4‐), participate in cation‐anion balance to add to the excess of anion uptake, equivalent amounts of hydroxyl ions should be expelled from roots which can increase rhizosphere pH and decrease uptake of Al and iron (Fe). The magnitude of OH^? released by roots for a 5000 kg/ha crop with an excess uptake of 1% Si can be equivalent to 357 kg lime per hectare. This could be very significant in decreasing Al and Fe uptake from acid soils when localized in the rhizosphere. Success of agriculture on highly acid soils may be enhanced by use in a rotation of crops and cultivars that have the ability to accumulate Si.     

Silicon concentrations in soil and bark in Irish Sitka spruce forests

The relationship between plant‐available silicon (Si) soil concentrations and bark Si concentrations in coniferous species is poorly understood. The objectives of this research were to generate baseline data on Si concentrations in soils and bark of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings in Ireland and to understand better the relationship between soil and bark Si concentrations. Seedlings were harvested from eight plantation forestry sites and two tree nurseries, and Si concentrations in the bark tissue as well as plant‐available Si concentrations in soils (CaCl₂ extractant) were measured. Bark Si concentrations varied significantly between sites and were lowest [mean 790 (± 242 SD) mg kg^?1 dry plant tissue] on acidic, organic rich peat soils, while the highest Si concentrations occurred in seedlings [mean 3688 (± 633 SD) mg kg^?1 dry plant tissue] grown on soils with low C concentration and higher pH values (≈ 4.5 to 5.5 in H₂O). Plant‐available Si soil concentrations were not related to soil C concentrations. There was a negative (but statistically not significant) relationship between plant–soil concentrations and soil pH. A significant negative relationship was observed between plant‐available soil Si concentrations and bark Si concentrations, which may be related to the presence of soil from mixed soil horizons forming the mounds that seedlings were planted on. Uptake and sequestration of Si by seedlings may have been related to the rate of growth of the seedlings, as bark Si concentrations were highest on sites that were expected to have greater seedling growth rates. The negative relationship between bark and plant‐available Si soil concentrations suggest that uptake of Si by Sitka spruce is rejective at higher concentrations.     

Silicon decreases the arsenic level in rice grain by limiting arsenite transport

Silicon (Si) reduces arsenic (As) levels in rice shoot and grain. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we examined the effect of Si application to three rice paddy soils on the dynamics of Si, iron (Fe), phosphorus (P), and As in the soil solution, As accumulation in rice straw, flag leaf, husk, brown rice, and polished rice, and on As speciation in polished rice. Silicon application to soil increased the concentrations of Si, Fe, As, and P in the soil solution, while the redox potential was unaffected. Arsenic concentrations of straw, flag leaf, and husk were reduced by half by Si application, while As concentrations of brown and polished rice were decreased by 22%. The main As species in polished rice was arsenite, As(III), with a fraction of 70%, followed by dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and arsenate, As(V), with 24% and 6%, respectively. Silicon application to the soil did not affect DMA or As(V) concentration of polished rice, while the As(III) concentration was reduced by 33%. These results confirm that Si reduces As(III) uptake and translocation into the shoot. Furthermore, data indicate that decrease of As concentration of polished rice is due to decreased As(III) transport into grain. Possible underlying mechanisms are discussed.     

Use of water-treatment residue containing polysilicate-iron to stabilize arsenic in flooded soils and attenuate arsenic uptake by rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants

A pot experiment was conducted to examine how soil amendment with water-treatment residue (WTR) containing polysilicate-iron affected dissolved arsenic (As) in flooded soils and As uptake by rice plants (Oryza sativa L.). The WTR was applied at a rate of 0 (control), 5, 10 or 20 t ha^?1. Simple linear regression analyses showed significant negative relationships between the concentrations of dissolved As in soil solution and WTR application rates at all sampling times, probably due to adsorption of As onto ferrihydrite in the WTR. Compared to As concentrations in rice plants grown on control soil, the concentrations in plants grown on WTR-treated soils decreased by 20.1–41.6% in straw (stems and leaves), 19.8–31.7% in husk and 18.6–21.0% in grain. The regression analyses demonstrated that the concentration and content of As in rice are negatively correlated with WTR application rate. Total As content was 16.5–32.0% lower in rice shoots grown on WTR-treated soils than on control soil. The percentage of each As species in grain decreased in the following order: As(III) » dimethylarsinic acid » As(V). The application of WTR did not change the As speciation in grain. Silicon contents in shoot significantly increased with application of WTR, indicating the potency of WTR as a silicate fertilizer. Taken together, our results indicate that WTR containing polysilicate-iron promises to be a practical amendment for stabilizing As and attenuating As uptake by rice plants.     

Arsenic uptake is suppressed in a rice mutant defective in silicon uptake

Possible mechanisms of the effects of silicon (Si) on arsenic (As) uptake were explored using a wild‐type rice and its low‐Si mutant (lsi1). Hydroponic experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of internal and external Si on the As accumulation and uptake by rice in excised roots (28 d–old seedlings) and xylem sap (61 d–old plants). The presence of Si significantly decreased the As concentrations in both shoots and roots of the wild type but not in the mutant with 13.3 μM–arsenite or 10/20 μM–arsenate treatments. The Si‐defective mutant rice (lsi1) also showed a significant reduction in arsenite or arsenate uptake. Moreover, As concentrations in xylem sap of the wild type were reduced by 51% with 1 mM Si– and 15 μM–arsenate treatments, while Si had no effect on As concentrations in the xylem sap of the mutant. Arsenic‐species analysis further indicated that the addition of 1 mM Si significantly decreased As(III) concentrations but had little effect on As(V) concentrations in the xylem sap of the wild type with 15 μM–arsenate treatments. These results indicated that external Si‐mediated reduction in arsenite uptake by rice is due to the direct competition between Si and arsenite during uptake. This is because both share the same influx transporter Lsi1. In addition, internal Si‐mediated reduction in arsenite uptake by rice is due to competition of the Si/arsenite efflux transporter Lsi2 during the As(III)‐transportation process. Silicon also inhibited arsenate uptake by rice. It is proposed that this could actually be due not to the inhibition of arsenate uptake per se but rather the inhibition of arsenite transformed from arsenate, either in the external solution or in rice roots.     

Interaction of Silicon and Phosphorus Mitigate Manganese Toxicity in Rice in a Highly Weathered Soil

Many researchers have reported beneficial effects of silicon (Si) on plant growth when available phosphorus (P) is low, but the reasons for this are poorly understood. Factorial application of three levels of Si and four levels of P to rice plants grown in Red Ferrosol interacted to increase rice growth and Si and P uptake (P < 0.01). Application of Si with P increased P uptake by <120%. Although Si application affected P uptake, yield increases were more likely associated with reduced manganese (Mn) toxicity, particularly as the P/Mn and P/iron ratios increased with increasing Si application. Further research is necessary to determine if the beneficial effects of Si application on P nutrition occur where adequate P is supplied or is limited to situations where alternate nutritional or disease limitations affect growth.     

Liming an acid soil treated with diverse silicon sources: Effects on silicon uptake by sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrids)

Highly weathered soils are typically acid, with low plant-available silicon (Si), and may also be high in soluble aluminum (Al). We tested whether pre-liming an acid soil prior to silicate fertilizer application improved Si uptake by sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrids), feasibly through elimination of reactive Al. Three trials with potted sugarcane were grown in an acid soil. Treatments included 11 different Si sources and 1- or 3-month pre-liming periods. Soil and plant tissue Si content and yield were determined. Pre-liming for a 1- or 3-month period did not increase plant Si uptake and reduced available soil Si throughout. Alkaline Si sources produced significantly more plant-available Si and greater plant uptake than non-alkaline sources. Silicon and lime treatments did not significantly increase yield. We conclude that pre-liming an acid soil before Si application is unlikely to significantly improve Si uptake by sugarcane.     

Establishing Soil Silicon Test Procedure and Critical Silicon Level for Rice in Louisiana Soils

Calibration of crop responses to applied silicon (Si) serves as a basis for developing Si fertilizer recommendation guidelines. A greenhouse experiment was set up in a randomized complete block design with five replications, two sources of Si (wollastonite and slag) and four Si rates (0, 170, 340 and 680 kg ha^?1) to calibrate plant-available Si for growing rice in Louisiana soils. Silicon concentrations were determined in soils using seven different extraction procedures. Based on a quadratic model (p < 0.05), the estimated soil Si critical level using 0.01 M calcium chloride (CaCl₂) for Sharkey clay soil was 110 mg kg^?1 while for Crowley silt loam and Commerce silt loam, levels were 37 and 43 mg kg^?1, respectively. These results suggest that suitability of an extractant that gives the best estimate of plant-available Si could considerably depend on soil type and it is unlikely that there is a universal extractant for all soils.     

Arsenic in Rice Soils and Potential Agronomic Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Arsenic Bioavailability: A Review

Soils used for rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivation in some areas contain high concentrations of arsenic (As) due to irrigation with groundwater containing As and intensive use of agrochemicals or industrial residues containing As. To restrict rice uptake of As in these soils, approaches to reduce As input and bioavailability must be considered. One approach to reduce As input into rice soils or uptake by rice is cultivating rice under aerobic, intermittent flooding, or alternate wetting and drying (AWD) conditions, rather than in submerged soils, or use of irrigation water low in As. For reducing As bioavailability in soil, aerobic or AWD rice culture and application of biochar, sulfur (S), and/or rice polish to soil are promising. Moreover, use of As-hyperaccumulating plant species (e.g., Pteris vittata L.) in rotation or combinations with favourable plant species (e.g., Azolla, Chlorella, or Nannochloropsis species) can also be promoted, in addition to using rice cultivars that are tolerant to As. Though applications of high doses of phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), and silicon (Si) fertilizers have shown promise in many instances, these methods have to be practiced carefully, because negative effects have also been reported, although such incidents are rare. Major factors affecting As speciation and bioavailability in soil are chemical properties such as redox status, pH, and Fe, P, Si, and S concentrations, physical properties such as texture and organic matter, and biological properties such as methylation activity by soil microorganisms. However, as many of these factors interact, long-term examination under field conditions is needed before measures are recommended for and implemented in farmers' fields.     

Comparison of four extractants and chemical fractions for assessing available zinc and copper in soils of India

Abstract

Relative suitability of different extraction procedures for estimating available zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) in soils was assessed using DTPA, 0.1 N HCl, ammonium acetate+EDTA, and double acid (HCl+ H₂SO₄) as extractants and rice as a test crop in Neubauer experiment. The relationships between Zn concentration and uptake of Zn by rice plants and Zn extracted by the different methods showed that DTPA‐TEA, pH 7.3, could very suitably be used to assess Zn availability in soils. However, 0.1 N HCl was better for assessing the Cu availability in soils to the rice plants. Water‐soluble and exchangeable fractions of Zn and Cu had significant positive correlations with Zn and Cu concentrations, respectively obtained by all the four extractants tested. The results also showed that DTPA and ammonium acetate+EDTA extracted organically bound Zn, whereas DTPA, 0.1 N HCl and ammonium acetate+EDTA extracted organically bound Cu. Water‐soluble, exchangeable and organic matter bound fractions exhibited significant relationships with Zn and Cu concentrations, their uptake and rice dry matter yield.     

Effects of slag silicate fertilizer on silicon content of rice plants grown in paddy fields on the Shounai Plain,Yamagata, Japan

Abstract

Slag silicate fertilizer (SSF) is applied to paddy fields with different soil chemical properties to increase silicon (Si) concentration in rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants. However, the effects of soil chemical properties on Si availability of SSF to rice Si uptake is poorly understood. To investigate the relationships between chemical properties of soils and the effects of SSF application on the Si concentration in rice plants, a field experiment was conducted in 2007 and 2008 at 18 paddy fields on the Shounai Plain, Yamagata, Japan. Two treatments were implemented: SSF applied at 1.5 t ha^?1 and a no-SSF control. The Si concentrations of rice tissues were measured at the tillering and ripening stages. The difference in the Si concentrations of rice tissues between treatments (ΔSi concentration) was used to evaluate the effect of SSF. The Si concentrations in the shoots and aboveground parts of the rice plants were significantly increased by the SSF application in six or more of the fields at the two growth stages, whereas the Si concentrations in the panicles of the rice plants at the ripening stage were not increased significantly in most fields. Results of two-way analysis of variance evidenced a significant effect of field on the ΔSi concentrations in the shoots and aboveground parts at both growth stages. Furthermore, the ΔSi concentrations in the same rice plant tissues and at the same growth stages in the first year and in the second year were found to be positively correlated. These results indicate that the effect of SSF on the Si concentration in shoots and aboveground parts of rice plants varies from field to field. The ΔSi concentrations in shoots and aboveground plant parts at both growth stages were also found to be negatively correlated with soil chemical properties, i.e., available Si, Si adsorption capacity, contents of Si adsorbents (acid oxalate-extractable iron and manganese) and the pH under flooded soil conditions. These findings imply that those soil chemical properties of paddy fields should be taken into account for better prediction of ΔSi concentration of rice plants.     

COPPER SORPTION BY SOILS AT LOW CONCENTRATIONS AND RELATION TO UPTAKE BY PLANTS

Copper sorption was measured in 14 agricultural soils from England and Wales with a wide range of properties. Sorption from 0.01 M CaCl₂ was described by the Freundlich adsorption isotherm when Cu in solution was initially at 200 HM and greater, but at lower initial concentrations (i. e. 100 fiM and less) there was a steep rise in the gradients of the isotherms. At initial concentrations of 100 JIM and less, sorption was linearly correlated to the concentration of Cu remaining in solution; the gradients of these relationships varied considerably amongst the soils and were highly correlated to soil pH. There was no correlation between either the gradients or the extrapolated values of final solution concentration at which there was no sorption of added Cu by the soils (an ‘equilibrium’ concentration), and other determined soil properties. The effect of pH adjustment on sorption varied between the 5 soils examined although, in general, there was increasing sorption with increasing pH. Extrapolated values for ‘equilibrium’ concentrations for an individual soil were higher at pH 6.0 or greater, than at pH 5.5. A large proportion of the Cu in the final solutions was apparently complexed but this varied between soils and was dependent on both pH and total concentration. There was little effect of varying pH of the final solution on these proportions in most soils. Neither extractable Cu in the soils, nor the sorption characteristics were related to availability as measured by uptake by perennial ryegrass.     

Extractable Silicon in Soils of the South African Sugar Industry and Relationships with Crop Uptake

Reports of sugarcane yield responses to silicon (Si), coupled with mounting evidence that elevated crop Si levels reduce both biotic and abiotic stresses, account for the interest in the Si nutrition of this crop. In terms of managing Si supplies to sugarcane in South Africa, uncertainties exist regarding, first, the reserves of plant-available Si in soils, and second, the reliability of soil-test methods for predicting Si availability. In this study, extractable Si was measured in 112 soils collected from sugarcane-producing fields in South Africa. Soils were selected on the basis of dominant soil types and included Inceptisols, Alfisols, Mollisols, Vertisols, Oxisols, Entisols, and Ultisols, varying widely in chemical properties, texture, and extent of weathering. Extractants employed were 0.01 M calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and 0.02 N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). Silicon extracted with 0.02 N H₂SO₄ ranged from 2 to 293 mg kg^?1, whereas with 0.01 M CaCl₂ the range was 5 to 123 mg kg^?1. With both extractants, extractable Si decreased significantly with decreasing pH, exchangeable calcium (Ca), and total cations. In soils with potassium chloride (KCl)–extractable Al+H levels of greater than 0.5 cmol_cL^?1, extractable Si levels were consistently low, suggesting that soluble Al is implicated in reducing plant-available Si levels. Extractable Si levels were not related to the Bache and Williams P-sorption indices of soils. In the second part of the investigation, sugarcane leaf Si concentrations from 28 sites were related to soil extractable Si levels. The CaCl₂ soil test proved markedly superior to H₂SO₄ as a predictive test for leaf Si levels.     

Evaluation of industrial wastes as sources of fertilizer silicon using chemical extractions and plant uptake

Six inorganic industrial‐waste materials (coal fly ash, bauxite‐processing mud, steel slag, two samples of air‐cooled blast furnace [BF] slag, and one sample of water‐cooled BF slag), along with wollastonite, were evaluated as fertilizer‐Si sources. Evaluation was carried out by analyzing total and extractable Si fractions in the materials, by incubating them at two rates with a Si‐deficient soil and measuring potentially available extractable Si and by measuring yield and Si uptake by two successive rice crops grown in the fertilized soils. Of the waste materials used, fly ash had the highest total Si content (29%) but a negligible quantity was present in extractable forms. Steel slag and bauxite‐processing mud had only 5%–7% Si content while BF slags contained 14%–18% Si. All materials, other than fly ash, increased the amount of extractable Si present in the soil. Additions of steel slag and bauxite‐processing mud caused greater increases in Si extractability than the air‐cooled BF slags while water‐cooled BF slag–treated soils contained notably high acid‐extractable Si. Because of the alkaline nature of the materials, and their reaction products, there was a positive relationship between extractable soil Si and soil pH. However, an equilibration experiment using NaSiO₃ as the Si source confirmed that Si solubility in the soil decreased with increasing pH. Dry‐matter yields of rice, at the lower rate of Si addition, were increased by all treatments other than fly ash. The higher rates of steel slag and bauxite‐processing mud caused yield depressions. Total Si uptake by rice was increased by all treatments, other than fly ash, and was greater at the higher rate of Si addition. It was concluded that the BF slags are the most effective waste materials as fertilizer‐Si sources and that, in slag‐amended soils, CaCl₂ and NH₄ acetate are the most reliable soil‐test extractants.     

Competitive and noncompetitive adsorption of silicate and phosphate by two acid Si-deficient soils and their effects on P and Si extractability

The effects of pH on the adsorption of silicate and phosphate, either singly or in competition, by two acid soils were investigated. Both soils adsorbed two to three times more P than Si and adsorption isotherms at pH 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 and 6.5 showed that increasing pH greatly increased Si adsorption but decreased that of P. Silicate adsorption was very low below pH 5.0, increased rapidly up to pH 9–10 before decreasing again. Adsorption of P was at a maximum at pH 2.0, decreased slowly up to pH 7.0 and then more rapidly above pH 7.0. When Si and P were added at equimolar concentrations, the presence of P decreased Si adsorption between pH 6.0 and 8.0 while the presence of Si decreased P adsorption in the pH region 6.0 and 11. Addition of calcium silicate at rates equivalent to 300, 600 and 1200 kg Si ha^?1 resulted in a progressive increase in soil pH. Separate samples of soil were treated with Ca(OH)₂ to give the same pH values so that the effect of Si could be identified. The highest rate of Si (1200 kg ha^?1 which gave a pH of 6.5) caused a significant decrease in P adsorption (as determined by adsorption isotherms) and an increase in resin-extractable P but the lower rates had little effect. Addition of P to the soil as calcium phosphate at rates equivalent to 30, 60 and 100 kg P ha^?1 all caused a decrease in Si adsorption capacity and an increase in CaCl₂-extractable Si. It was concluded that the strategy of adding Si to lower P requirements in acid soils is not likely to be effective while addition of fertilizer P may well lower Si adsorption and promote Si desorption and its increased mobility.     

Bioavailability of Silicon from Different Sources and Its Effect on the Yield of Rice in Acidic,Neutral, and Alkaline soils of Karnataka,South India

Several silicon (Si) sources have been reported to be effective in terms of their effectiveness on rice growth and yield. Apart from that, it is crucial to understand the bioavailability of silicon from different silicon sources for adequate plant uptake and its performances in varying types of soils. In this point of view, a pot experiment was conducted to assess the bioavailability of silicon from three Si sources and its effect on yield of rice crop in three contrasting soils. Acidic (pH 5.86), neutral (pH 7.10), and alkaline (pH 9.38) soils collected from different locations in Karnataka were amended with calcium silicate, diatomite, and rice husk biochar (RHB) as Si sources. Silica was applied at 0, 250, and 500 kg Si ha^?1, and the pots were maintained under submerged condition. There was a significant increase in the yield parameters such as panicle number pot^?1, panicle length pot^?1, straw dry weight pot^?1, and grain weight pot^?1 in acidic and neutral soils with the application of Si over no Si treatment, whereas only straw dry weight pot^?1 increased significantly with the application of Si sources over control in alkaline soil. Higher Si content and uptake was noticed in neutral soil followed by acidic and alkaline soils. The bioavailability of Si increased with the application of Si sources but varied based on the types of soil. Application of calcium silicate followed by diatomite performed better in acidic and neutral soils whereas RHB was a better source of Si in alkaline soil. A significant difference in plant-available silicon status of the soil was noticed with the application of Si sources over control in all three studied soils.     

Evaluation of Selected Extractants for Plant-Available Silicon in Rice Soils of Southern India

The extractable silicon (Si) using selected extractants irrespective of the soils used for the study was in the order of 0.005 M sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) > 0.1 M citric acid > N sodium acetate (NaOAc) 2 > N NaOAc 1 > 0.5 M acetic acid 3 > 0.5 M acetic acid 2 > 0.5 M acetic acid 1> 0.01 M calcium chloride (CaCl₂) > 0.5 M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) > distilled water 4 > distilled water 1. Silicon extraction with N NaOAc 1 appeared to be the most suitable for evaluating Si, followed by extraction with 0.5 M acetic acid 2 and N NaOAc 2. These extractants showed the greatest degree of significant correlation with the percentage of Si in straw and grain, as well as Si uptake by straw and grain. These methods also rapidly extract soil Si in comparison to the other methods and appear to be the most suitable for routine soil testing for plant-available Si in the rice soils of southern India.