湖羊不同发育阶段卵泡内代谢产物和激素含量的比较研究

本试验旨在研究代谢产物、代谢激素和生殖激素在湖羊黄体期不同发育卵泡内的变化。选用体质量40kg左右的湖羊11头,同期发情结束后第12天屠宰,按不同大小卵泡分离卵泡液。试验结果表明,与≤2.5mm卵泡相比,>2.5mm卵泡内的葡萄糖浓度显著提高(P<0.05),胰高血糖素浓度显著降低(P<0.05),乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活性和睾酮浓度极显著降低(P<0.01),雌二醇浓度极显著提高(P<0.01),而血氨、游离脂肪酸、尿素、胰岛素和孕酮浓度差异不显著。雌二醇浓度与LDH活性呈极显著负相关(P<0.01),与葡萄糖浓度呈显著正相关(P<0.05),与胰高血糖素浓度呈显著负相关(P<0.05),与睾酮浓度呈极显著负相关(P<0.01),与孕酮浓度接近正相关(P=0.051)。试验结果表明代谢产物和激素共同参与调节卵泡发育。     

卵泡液中总蛋白含量与卵泡直径的关系

通过检测不同直径卵泡的卵泡液中总蛋白含量的变化,从而进一步阐明卵泡液中蛋白成分在卵泡发育过程中的作用。将直径为3~5、5~8、8~10mm的卵泡和囊肿卵泡(>21mm)分为4组(n=10),分别抽取卵泡液。通过TCA/丙酮方法进行样品处理;根据Bradford法检测原理,利用分光光度计对其进行蛋白定量研究。结果表明:3~5mm为4440μg/mL,5~8mm为976μg/mL,8~10mm为686μg/mL,囊肿卵泡(>21mm)为537.2μg/mL。经SPSS13.0软件分析,3~5mm卵泡液中蛋白平均浓度高于其他组(P<0.01);其他3组间差异均不显著(P>0.05);囊肿卵泡中蛋白含量最低。由此可得出,卵泡液中总蛋白浓度随着卵泡直径的增加而降低,表明卵泡液中的蛋白含量与卵泡发育的成熟度呈负相关。而囊肿卵泡的发生很可能和蛋白含量降低有关,为卵泡囊肿发病机制的研究提供新的理论参考。     

牛卵泡卵母细胞体外成熟的研究

研究了卵泡大小、卵泡液和卵丘细胞对牛卵泡卵母细胞体外成熟的影响。结果表明 :直径 2～ 6mm卵泡中的卵母细胞成熟率 ( 72 1%)最高 ,与直径小于 2mm( 5 8 4%)、6～ 8mm( 5 6 4%)及大于 8mm ( 3 5 0 %)卵泡中的卵母细胞组差异显著 ;成熟培养基中添加 10 %的新鲜牛卵泡液 (bFF)对牛卵母细胞的体外成熟有促进作用 ,但高浓度的bFF( 2 0 %、3 0 %)则抑制牛卵母细胞的体外成熟 ;卵丘 -卵母细胞复合体的质量影响卵母细胞的体外成熟 ,A、B、C三级卵母细胞成熟率分别为 86 1%、66 3 %、3 5 6%,卵裂率分别为 42 8%、3 1 9%、10 5 %,差异均显著 (P <0 0 5 )。     

FSH和胰岛素对牛卵泡颗粒细胞长期培养的影响

McCoy’s5a为基础培养液添加硒、转铁蛋白、雄烯二酮、谷氨酰胺 ,对牛卵巢上大 (直径 >8mm)、中 (4mm <直径 <8mm)、小 (直径 <4mm)非闭锁卵泡的颗粒细胞进行无血清培养 ,研究添加不同浓度的促卵泡激素和胰岛素对颗粒细胞增生、分化和激素分泌的影响。结果 :FSH可以诱导颗粒细胞增生及雌二醇合成能力 ,颗粒细胞的雌二醇合成能力与生理浓度的FSH呈剂量依赖方式。胰岛素对大、中、小卵泡颗粒细胞增生和雌二醇分泌有促进作用。     

青年母牛卵泡大小与妊娠成功的关系

早期研究表明:经产母牛输精期卵泡大小显著影响其受胎率和授精后胚胎/胎儿死亡率,但对自然排卵的母牛受胎率没有影响。本研究目标是分析青年母年受胎率、胚胎/胎儿死亡率同排卵前期卵泡大小、诱导或自发排卵后血液循环中雌二醇浓度之间的关系。青年母牛分为成2组不同的繁殖牛群进行人工授精:①利用同期发情和诱导排卵后授精(TAI,n=98);②在23 d发情周期中,利用电子检测仪检测母牛发情后12 h授精(自然排卵,n=110)。利用直肠超声波检查输精时卵泡大小和输精后27、41、55和68d怀孕状态。测定的青年母牛中仅有6头出现后期胚胎或早期胎儿死亡。繁殖牛群和卵泡大小的相互作用并不影响母牛受胎率。结合繁殖牛群数据分析,卵泡大小对受胎率的对数回归特征表现为曲线(P<0.01),并且预测出卵泡大小为12.8mm时,受胎率最高(为68.0±4.9%)。卵泡直径小于10.7 mm或大于15.7 mm时,受胎率都较直径为12.8 mm卵泡低。直径小于10.7 mm卵泡(有28%的青年母牛妊娠)则比大于15.7 mm的卵泡(仅有4%)更易受孕。授精后24 h内有发情行为的青年母牛所排卵泡直径(12.2±0.2 mm)、雌二醇浓度(9.9±0.6)以及妊娠率(63%)都显著高于无发情行为的母牛(分别为11.1±0.3mm,6.6±0.7,20%)(P<0.01)。然而,对卵泡大小差异进行分析后,发现妊娠率又与发情行为表现和雌二醇浓度无关。因此,血清雌二醇浓度和发情行为对妊娠的影响似乎通过卵泡大小来介导的,并且优化卵泡大小的管理实践可以提高受胎率。     

牛卵泡的生长、功能及更新

本文是综述有关奶牛重复发情性周期和产后乏情期间有腔卵泡数量和大小,以及血清和卵泡液中雌二醇、雄激素、孕酮浓度,每个卵泡上促性腺激素受体数量变化的研究结果。1～18天(发情当天作0天)间小卵泡(1～3mm)发育成大卵泡的速度随性周期的进展而增加。有腔大卵泡的体积也随性周期的进展而增大.大多数大卵泡(>10mm)在性周期的第3～13天间在卵巢表面存留5天以上。第13天以后,这些大卵泡中的大多数常常被新的生长着的卵泡所代替(更新),并可能在第18天后排卵。需要对牛的小卵泡发育成大的有腔的最后排卵的卵泡所需时间作进一步研究。控制排卵卵泡出现的因素还不太清楚,可能包括:血液中LH 脉冲频率的增加、血流量的变化、卵泡内类固醇激素和蛋白质浓度的变化。卵泡的定量分析结果表明,卵泡液中雌二醇浓度和大卵泡中LH 受体数量之间仅在排卵前期存在着短暂的一致性的变化。据此推测:大多数性周期中发现的卵泡中雌二醇浓度较低不是由于可芳香化前体或 FSH 受体不足,而是由于卵泡液中孕酮浓度仅于临近排卵时才上升.关于奶牛产后乏情期间卵泡生长、更新和功能的机制现在了解得还很少.初步研究结果表明,产后期间,大卵泡产生类固醇激素的能力存在着明显的变化.     

牛卵巢卵泡Smad9表达模式的研究

本研究旨在探究Smad9在牛卵巢卵泡中的表达模式,为研究Smad9的功能奠定基础。从屠宰场获取牛卵巢,分离得到小卵泡(2 mm≤直径≤4 mm)、中卵泡(4 mm直径8 mm)、大卵泡(直径≥8 mm),用免疫组织化学技术对不同直径卵泡的Smad9蛋白进行定位分析;通过机械分离法分离卵泡颗粒细胞,用qPCR和Westernblotting技术检测Smad9在小卵泡、中卵泡、大卵泡颗粒细胞中的相对表达量。结果显示:在牛的卵泡中,Smad9在颗粒细胞和膜细胞层中表达;小卵泡和中卵泡颗粒细胞中Smad9mRNA转录本相对丰度低于大卵泡颗粒细胞(P0.01),而中卵泡颗粒细胞内Smad9 mRNA转录本相对丰度低于小卵泡(P0.05);中卵泡和小卵泡颗粒细胞中Smad9蛋白的表达量低于大卵泡(P0.01),中卵泡颗粒细胞中Smad9蛋白表达量是小卵泡的0.9倍(P0.05)。综上,Smad9主要在牛卵泡颗粒细胞层中表达,且大卵泡表达量极显著高于小卵泡和中卵泡。     

胚胎移植时卵泡和黄体对妊娠率影响的分析

本试验探讨在受体羊的卵巢上同时存在卵泡和黄体时进行胚胎移植对移植后妊娠率的影响。经试验得出:(1)胚胎移植时受体羊卵巢上有卵泡(卵泡的直径小于3mm)和无卵泡的移植后妊娠率差异不显著(P>0.05);(2)卵巢上有功能性黄体存在时,卵泡的直径(小于2mm)对胚胎移植妊娠率的影响差异不显著(P>0.05)。同期发情处理对卵巢上的黄体和卵泡有很大影响,处理效果直接影响受体羊的利用率和胚胎移植后的妊娠率,而当卵巢上有功能性黄体存在时,卵巢上卵泡的有无及其大小(直径小于3mm)对胚胎移植后的妊娠率影响不显著(P>0.05)。     

母马大、小卵泡的卵泡液代谢组学分析及其对卵泡发育的影响

本实验旨在研究母马大、小卵泡液代谢物的差异,从卵泡液代谢组层面初步探讨差异物对卵泡发育的影响及卵泡发育机制。选用8匹山东即墨地区母马的卵泡液进行代谢组学分析,大卵泡直径设为45～60 mm、小卵泡直径设为20～30 mm,采用超高液相色谱-高分辨质谱联用技术,通过主成分分析法(PCA)、偏最小二乘法-判别分析法(PLS-DA)得到大小卵泡液差异性物质质荷比。结果表明:在大卵泡液中含量多的代谢物有睾酮、1-棕榈酰溶血磷脂酸、β-硫酸雌醇、硫酸雌酮,小卵泡液中含量多的代谢物有硫酸吲哚酚、木子塘、水苏糖和3-脲基丙酸酯。综上可知,在大卵泡液中,上调物质主要是类固醇,比较单一集中,但小卵泡中不存在上调的类固醇物质,说明在母马中类固醇激素是促使卵泡发育的主要代谢物;在小卵泡液中,上调物质种类复杂,当优势卵泡出现时,可能有一些代谢物会抑制其余的小卵泡继续发育。     

促卵泡激素和胰岛素对牛卵泡颗粒细胞长期培养的影响

以McCoy’s5a为基础培养液添加硒、转铁蛋白、雄烯二酮、谷氨酰胺，对牛卵巢上大（直径〉8mm）、中（4mm〈直径〈8mm）、小（直径〈4mm）非闭锁卵泡的颗粒细胞进行无血清培养，研究添加不同浓度的促卵泡激素（FSH）和胰岛素对颗粒细胞增生、分化和激素分泌的影响。结果，FSH能诱导颗粒细胞增生及提高其雌二醇合成能力，颗粒细胞雌二醇的合成能力与生理浓度的FSH存在剂量依赖关系。胰岛素对大、中、小卵泡颗粒细胞增生和雌激素分泌有促进作用。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.