7个暖季型草坪草品种对低温胁迫的抗性差异研究

本研究以假俭草（Eremochloa ophiuroides ）、海滨雀稗（Paspalum vaginatum）、结缕草（Zoysia japonica）、‘天堂草419’（Cynodon dactylon ‘Tiffgreen 419’）和普通狗牙根（Cynodon dactylon）等5种暖季型草坪草种的7个品种为供试材料,研究了在25℃（CK）和15℃,10℃,5℃3个低温胁迫下的生理生化特征。结果表明：7个品种在低温胁迫下坪用性状指标不同程度下降,随胁迫温度的降低,草坪草叶片中丙二醛、游离脯氨酸、可溶性糖含量和相对电导率上升,叶绿素含量快速减少;海滨雀稗在5℃低温胁迫3 d枯黄,沟叶结缕草在5 d枯黄。综合7种暖季型草坪草品种的生长表现与生理指标,其抗寒性由强到弱依次为普通狗牙根 > ‘天堂草419’ > 中国假俭草 >‘兰引三号’结缕草 > 中华结缕草 > 沟叶结缕草 > 海滨雀稗。     

不同践踏强度对3种暖季型草坪草的影响北大核心CSCD

开放的公园绿地草坪可满足居民游憩健身、防灾避险需求,保障城市居民的公共安全和健康,但过度践踏会对草坪产生直接的机械磨损和土壤紧实造成的间接损伤,因此草坪的耐践踏性成为衡量公园绿地质量的关键因素之一。为了探究不同草坪草在不同践踏强度下耐践踏能力,以上海常用的结缕草属、雀稗属、狗牙根属(Cynodon)3个暖季型草坪草品种为试验材料,设置不同客流量大小的践踏强度和践踏频率,在草坪生长高峰的5-9月分散式模拟践踏后,从草坪草的耐磨损性、耐土壤紧实性及恢复能力3个方面进行多指标隶属函数综合评价。结果表明:在轻度践踏水平时,3个草种的耐践踏性为:‘Belair’结缕草>‘SeaIsle2000’海滨雀稗>‘Tifdwarf’杂交狗牙根,40人·次^(-1)的轻度践踏可促进3个草种生长;在中度践踏时3个草种的耐践踏性为:杂交狗牙根>海滨雀稗>结缕草,杂交狗牙根在5-9月生长期内受80人·次^(-1)的践踏时表现出最强的耐践踏能力;重度践踏下,3个草种的耐践踏综值为:杂交狗牙根>海滨雀稗>结缕草,杂交狗牙根的耐践踏能力与其本身较强的生长量、恢复能力相关。上述试验结果,不仅可为公园绿地规划建设中所需耐践踏草坪草资源的推广利用提供理论依据,也可为公园绿地承载、绿地养护及客流导引间形成动态反馈机制的智能化管理系统提供基础数据,保障游客的安全和舒适度。     

关注高尔夫球场“杂草坪”

根据1999-2009年在中国102个高尔夫球场调查,发现有15种"杂草坪"危害栽培草坪:即百慕大(Cynodon dactylon×C.transvaalensis)中的野草坪(weedy turf),海滨雀稗(Paspalum vaginatum)中的百慕大,结缕草(Zoysiaspp.)中的百慕大,百慕大中的高羊茅(Festuca arundinacea),百慕大中的海滨雀稗,海滨雀稗中的黑麦草(Lolium perenne),百慕大中的黑麦草,结缕草中的海滨雀稗,高羊茅中的草地早熟禾(Poapratensis),百慕大中的匍匐剪股颖(Agrostis stolonifera),草地早熟禾中的高羊茅,高羊茅中的百慕大,海滨雀稗中的匍匐剪股颖,海滨雀稗中的高羊茅,草地早熟禾中的匍匐剪股颖,阐明了"杂草坪"的发生、分布并分析高尔夫球场"杂草坪"危害公众健康、破坏球场景观、妨碍竞技发挥、增加养护成本和缩短草坪更换期的危害和生物入侵、生态选择、抗药性产生、滥用化学品及气候变化是高尔夫球场"杂草坪"形成的可能成因,提出了管理控制、检疫控制、生态控制、生物控制、替代控制、预测监控和化学控制相结合的应对高尔夫球场"杂草坪"的策略。     

四种暖季型草坪植物的盐胁迫反应及其耐盐阈值

以百慕大‘Tifdwarf’、假俭草、海滨雀稗‘Salam’和结缕草4种暖季型草坪植物为材料,研究了不同盐(NaCl)浓度处理对草坪植物生长和生理的影响。结果表明,海滨雀稗耐盐性最好,海滨雀稗的目测质量、相对生长率、叶片相对含水量、叶绿素指数、光化学效率在600 mmol/L盐浓度处理36 d时分别下降了52.2%,76.2%,62.1%,59.4%和72.9%,相对电导率上升至71.5%,与其他3个草种相比,海滨雀稗各指标仍能维持较高的水平,膜伤害程度相对较小;结缕草耐盐性次之,600 mmol/L盐处理36 d时目测质量、相对生长率、叶片相对含水量、叶绿素指数、光化学效率分别下降了85.2%,85.3%,70.5%,73.9%和49.3%,相对电导率上升至81.8%,表现出较好的耐盐性;耐盐性表现很差的为百慕大和假俭草,在600 mmol/L盐浓度处理36 d时,2种草的各指标皆下降至0,膜伤害程度达到最大,草坪草已枯死。盐处理36 d时,将生长量与盐处理浓度建立回归方程,以生长量下降50%作为耐盐阈值的确定指标,求得4个草种的耐盐阈值分别为为:假俭草222.4 mmol/L,百慕大232.4 mmol/L,结缕草374.8 mmol/L和海滨雀稗474.0 mmol/L。     

15份不同暖季型草坪草生长量对长期水淹和水涝胁迫的响应

以6种15份暖季型草坪草的种质资源为材料,研究了两个月的水淹(涝)胁迫对其生长的影响。结果表明:水涝胁迫对双穗雀稗‘P018’和‘P019’(Paspalum distichum)、海滨雀稗‘P021’(P.vaginatum)和伪针茅‘PX02’(Pseudoraphis spinescens)等材料的生长有一定促进作用,但明显抑制杂交狗牙根‘C807’(Cynodon dactylon×C.transadlensis)及狗牙根‘C134’(C.dactylon)等的生长。基于对15份草坪草在水涝胁迫下表现的综合分析,所有材料的耐涝性强弱依次为双穗雀稗‘P018’双穗雀稗‘P019’海滨雀稗‘P021’伪针茅‘PX02’双穗雀稗‘P020’假俭草‘E194’(Eremochloa ophiuroides)杂交狗牙根‘C751’狗牙根‘C291’海滨雀稗‘P006’狗牙根‘C106’假俭草‘E193’杂交狗牙根‘C807’=狗牙根‘C852’狗牙根‘C851’狗牙根‘C134’。水淹胁迫下15份材料受到的伤害均明显大于水涝胁迫,两份假俭草材料在两个月水淹胁迫后均已死亡。基于15份材料水淹胁迫下的表现,其耐淹性由强到弱依次为双穗雀稗‘P018’双穗雀稗‘P019’伪针茅‘PX02’双穗雀稗‘P020’狗牙根‘C291’杂交狗牙根‘C751’杂交狗牙根‘C807’海滨雀稗‘P006’狗牙根‘C852’狗牙根‘C851’海滨雀稗‘P021’狗牙根‘C106’狗牙根‘C134’假俭草‘E194’=假俭草‘E193’。所有材料中,由于双穗雀稗‘P018’、‘P019’和伪针茅‘PX02’具有优良的耐淹性和耐涝性,是理想的河湖岸带植物群落修复和生态系统构建植物。     

几种常绿草坪草对干旱胁迫的生理响应

对几种在华南地区保持常绿的草坪草在干旱胁迫下的生理反映应进行了研究,其土壤含水量随着干旱胁迫天数的延长而急剧下降;游离脯氨酸、叶片可溶性糖、MDA以及SOD等指标的测定以及对草坪草抗旱性的综合评判,结果表明:利用多指标综合评价草坪草的耐旱性更加科学合理,综合评价后各供试草种的耐旱性大小依次为:马尼拉结缕草＞海滨雀稗＞近...     

海滨雀稗耐逆性研究进展

海滨雀稗（Paspalums vaginatium）作为最耐盐的暖季型草坪草,具有耐盐性强、景观效果佳、耐粗放管理等优点,被广泛应用于高尔夫球场、足球场和景观绿地的建植中,在盐碱地的植物修复改良中具有巨大的应用潜力。海滨雀稗的耐盐性极强,但品种间的耐盐性存在较大差异。在耐盐机理研究方面,主要集中于盐胁迫下的形态学、离子吸收、渗透调节和光合作用影响等方面,对关键耐盐基因在耐盐调控中的研究较少。海滨雀稗的耐寒性和耐旱性相对较差,且不同品种间存在较大差异,这严重限制了海滨雀稗在我国北方干旱盐碱地区的推广应用。本文就海滨雀稗的耐逆性评价及耐逆机理等方面的研究进行综述,旨在为海滨雀稗耐逆机理研究和耐逆新品种选育工作提供借鉴,以期为农作物的耐盐性研究提供理论基础和基因来源。     

长沙贺龙体育中心足球场草坪建植与质量评价

根据标准化足球场草坪对坪床和草坪草的要求及长沙市气候、土壤特点,选用2种冷季型草坪草以混播方式建植了湖南省长沙贺龙体育中心国际标准足球场草坪。根据此次高标准草坪建植养护的成功经验,在我国南方地区建植国际标准足球场的草种选择、坪床配方、草坪建植技术、建坪后的养护管理等方面总结出了草坪过渡带地区足球场草坪建植的技术规范,为今后建植高标准的足球场草坪提供了有益的借鉴。     

暖季型草坪草的引种与评价

在深圳对１９个际型草坪草品种进行了年多的品比试验，筛选出５人绿地型品种和７个运动型品种。经排序和综合评价结果，绿地型品种当首推半细叶结缕草和细叶结缕草；运动型品种中，兰引１号狗牙根适合作高尔夫果岭草种，ＴｉｆｗａｙⅡ，新西兰狗牙根，Ｕ３，泰国狗牙根等狗牙根品种适宜建植高尔夫发球台和球道草坪，兰引３号结缕草和日本结缕草适宜建模足球场，高尔夫球道及长草区草坪。     

西安市44个草坪草品种引种试验研究

为选择适合西安市城市绿化草坪草种,于2001—2003年在西安市进行了草坪草引种试验研究,其中包括黑麦草、羊茅、翦股颖、早熟禾属在内的44个品种。通过建立草坪草评价体系,观察了草坪草颜色、盖度、密度、均一性等4项指标,并筛选出适应性较好,品质相对优良的早熟禾,高羊茅等草坪草品种,以供西安市绿化建植草坪参考。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.