新疆三种主要草地植被类型的高光谱反射特征研究

本研究利用便携式地物光谱仪,对新疆部分天然草地类型及植物进行了实地光谱测量,分析和比较了3种草地类型的光谱反射特征。结果表明,在可见光波段,干荒漠类草甸植被,除角果黎外,其冠层反射率要低于低地山地草甸和蒿属荒漠草地。而在近红外波段,角果黎、骆驼蓬、梭梭冠层光谱反射率明显高于低地山地草甸植被和部分蒿属荒漠草甸植被。同一类型草地中,由于植被类别间的差异以及叶片内部结构的不同,冠层光谱反射率差异较大。3类草地类型不同植被的红边特征参数表现为干荒漠类草甸的梭梭红边位置最高,低地山地草甸的博洛塔绢蒿红边位置最低;蒿属荒漠类草甸的骆驼蓬的红边斜率和红边面积最大,低地山地草甸的苔草红边斜率和红边面积最小。对6种代表性的植被指数分析得出,PRI、OSAVI、MCARI指数均表现为蒿属荒漠类草甸<低地山地草甸<干荒漠类草甸。NDVI植被指数则表现为低地山地草甸最大,而干荒漠类草甸最小。GNDVI指数表现为低地山地草甸最大,蒿属荒漠类草甸最小。总之,高光谱遥感对于草地植被的分类监测和遥感反演等具有重要的意义。     

新疆典型荒漠草地的高光谱特征提取和分析研究

本研究以新疆阜康地区的典型荒漠植被为对象,通过微分和Savitzky-Golay平滑滤波处理,从野外高光谱仪采集的高光谱谱线中,提取了典型荒漠植被的高光谱特征(红边、绿峰、红谷),结果显示,荒漠植被虽然也具有红边和绿峰等吸收特征,但是枝叶稀疏、覆盖度较低的荒漠植被高光谱受下垫面影响,不具有明显绿峰,红边特征也随着植被盖度的降低而减弱;由于荒漠植被10月份进入凋落枯萎时期,其光谱反射率受土壤光谱干扰而数值偏大,红边位置较5月份呈现出“红移”的规律,NDVI和RVI指数也呈现出10月份低于5月份的现象;不同草地类型、不同季相的荒漠植被,其红边、绿峰、红谷特征和植被指数均具有显著差异,但是NDVI和RVI具有较高的数据相关性。新疆典型荒漠草地的光谱特征提取和分析研究不但丰富了高光谱信息挖掘手段,还为基于高光谱信息的草地类型分类研究提供了数据基础和科学依据。     

内蒙古不同植被光谱特征分析

根据野外测定的不同植被光谱数据,分析了内蒙古典型草原、干旱草原、人工草场等植被的光谱特性及其变化的基本规律,其结果为:在可见光的550nm(绿处)附近有个反射率为百分之十五的小反射峰。在700～800nm之间反射率急剧增高,出现峰值;在500nm(蓝)和680nm(红)波段附近有两个明显的吸收带(谷)。同时不同植被光谱特征存在差异性:在可见光400～700nm波段,干旱植被反射率明显高于典型草原植被和人工草坪植被,可能受到叶绿素含量的影响;而在680～760nm波段则人工草地的植被红边斜率值最大,干旱草原的该值最低,典型草原的参数在二者之间,反映了不同植被覆盖度或叶面积指数的差异性。     

民勤10种典型荒漠植物冠层光谱与含水率的特征分析

植物体内水分是影响植物光合作用、呼吸作用、生物量及其他生理生化指标的主要因素之一,植物含水率的调查是植被研究的重要内容,利用高光谱进行典型荒漠植物含水率与冠层光谱的关系研究对荒漠区植被遥感监测具有重要意义。本研究借助ASD便携地物光谱仪实地测定了10种典型荒漠植物的冠层光谱曲线,并采用相关系数法和植被指数法,分析了不同荒漠植物光谱特征及其与冠层含水率的关系,结果显示:1)荒漠植物反射光谱曲线具有绿色植物在可见光-近红外波段的普遍特征,有明显的"绿峰"特征和"红边效应"。2)在954-973,1 184-1 198和1 440-1462 nm三个波段,荒漠植物存在明显的水分吸收谷。其中,1 440-1 462 nm波段的光谱反射率与含水率相关系数大于0.8,二者具有很强的线性相关性。3)WBI(Water Band Index)、NDWI(Normalized Difference Water Index)、NDII(Normalized Difference Infrared Infrared Index)、MSI(Moisture Stress Index)与植物含水率显著相关(P<0.05),冠层水分含量指数与植被水分实测值具有较高的一致性,可以反映荒漠植被含水率变化。     

伊犁绢蒿荒漠草地物种光谱特征分析及识别初探

利用便携式地物光谱仪,对天山北坡中段伊犁绢蒿(Seriphidium transiliense)荒漠草地9种植物进行实地光谱测量,对光谱进行一阶微分、平滑、归一化、R_r-R_n光谱特征空间处理,对植物光谱特征分析及识别,并建立判别模型。结果表明,不同植物的原始光谱反射率在特定波段具有一定差异性,一阶微分对于精确提取该类草地植物红边特征参数值有重要作用,平滑处理可以有效去除噪声影响,归一化更有利于发现植物光谱特征,Rr-Rn在区分该类草地植物方面存在困难。选用近红外波段反射率(R_n),红边位置(REP),绿波段反射率(R_g),修改型土壤调节植被指数MSAVI和叶绿素吸收比值指数(CRAI)5项光谱指标建立判别函数,9种植物的判别精度达到90.5%。     

牛心朴子的光谱差异特征参量分析

牛心朴子(Cynanchum komarovii)是分布在西北干旱半干旱荒漠草原的主要毒害草之一。近年来,牛心朴子快速蔓延对当地畜牧业发展和草原生产力的影响日益严重。采用内蒙古阿拉善左旗典型样区内牛心朴子和其它沙地植物的野外实测光谱,通过叶片光谱、冠层光谱及群落样方光谱的对比分析,探讨牛心朴子与其它沙地植物的光谱差异性。结果表明,在350-2 500nm波段,牛心朴子叶片的光谱反射率均高于花的反射率,花的反射光谱未出现明显的蓝谷和绿峰。沙地背景对牛心朴子冠层光谱的影响强烈,冠层光谱是沙地与牛心朴子叶片光谱的综合表征。最大的红边斜率以及800-1 300nm明显的高反射率是牛心朴子与其它沙地植物冠层光谱的主要差异特征。根据不同盖度牛心朴子群落样方光谱的变化规律,选取4个特征参量与群落盖度进行线性回归分析表明:利用红边斜率进行群落盖度反演的效果最好,R~2为0.781 5。本研究可为牛心朴子分布遥感监测及其盖度定量反演提供科学依据。     

基于CNN和SVM的地面高光谱遥感草地植物识别

物候期和识别模型的选择直接影响植物识别的精度。本研究以蒿类荒漠草地主要植物伊犁绢蒿(Seriphidium transiliense)、角果藜(Ceratocarpus arenarius)以及裸地为识别对象,选择4月、6月、9月3个时期,通过SOC 710 VP高光谱成像仪采集草地群落高光谱数据,在分析地物光谱反射率差异的基础上,利用最佳指数因子(OIF)筛选特征波段,通过卷积神经网络(CNN)和支持向量机(SVM)建立识别模型。结果表明：1)不同物候期的伊犁绢蒿与角果藜在可见光波段均表现为“低-高-低”的光谱反射率趋势,并随月份增加峰谷现象逐渐不明显;红边波段这两种植物表现出快速上升;在NIR平台区4月各识别对象间反射率大小差异最明显。2)利用OIF筛选的识别波段组合在月份间表现一致,为638.64、789.49和923.79 nm。3)在识别精度上,SVM> CNN;4月> 9月> 6月;裸地>伊犁绢蒿>角果藜。综合来看,采用SVM在4月对蒿类荒漠草地主要植物进行识别的精度最高,为92.12%。     

围栏封育下伊犁绢蒿荒漠草地特征植物高光谱特征变化分析

为研究围栏封育对伊犁绢蒿(Seriphidium transiliense)荒漠草地的改善情况,利用便携式光谱仪对不同封育年限的围栏内外实测的半灌木伊犁绢蒿、一年生草本叉毛蓬(Petrosimonia sibirica)和短命植物涩芥(Malcolmia maritima)的高光谱数据进行分析。结果表明,伊犁绢蒿、叉毛蓬和涩芥三者在可见光波段具有明显的差异性,与植物生态生理特征有关,可利用350~680 nm内三者光谱反射率的差异进行区分;伊犁绢蒿的红边斜率在不同封育年限下均表现为围栏内大于围栏外,而叉毛蓬的红边斜率表现为围栏内小于围栏外,涩芥在平台处光谱和红边特征上与其生理生态特征无明显相关性。     

基于HJ-HSI数据的伊犁绢蒿荒漠草地生物量估测

以地面实测数据为依据,通过获取其同步HJ-HSI影像光谱反射率,筛选出光谱变量、波段变量,对不同利用状态的退化伊犁绢蒿(Seriphidium transiliense)荒漠草地(围栏封育区N,围栏外重度退化区W_1,围栏外中度退化区W_2)的地上生物量进行估测。结果表明,1)各季节不同利用状态伊犁绢蒿荒漠草地群落HJ-HSI光谱反射率不同,春季为W_2NW_1,夏季为W_2W_1N,秋季为W_1W_2N;2)HJ-HSI可以实现对伊犁绢蒿荒漠草地地上生物量的估测,估测模型因群落类型和季节不同而存在差异。春、夏、秋3个季节的估测模型,N分别由DVI、NDVI、620.225-627.895nm反射率平均值所构建,W_1分别由近红外波段(Rn)、656.305nm和776.8199nm反射率归一化值、MSAVI构建,W_2分别由652.09和732.01nm反射率归一化值、红外波段(Rr)、584.52-598.295nm反射率平均值构建。     

天山北坡草地盖度高光谱遥感估算

以天山北坡乌鲁木齐县甘沟乡为研究区,利用美国SVC HR-768便携式光谱仪采集25块样方的高光谱数据,并测定对应样方中草地盖度,分析草地盖度与原始光谱、一阶微分光谱和高光谱特征变量之间的相关关系;采用回归统计的方法,基于高光谱位置变量、高光谱面积变量和高光谱植被指数变量构建草地盖度的估测模型,并进行模型精度评价。结果表明,研究区草地盖度与植被冠层光谱反射率相关性较强的波段范围为354-704、1 420-1 481和1 904-2 512nm;基于一阶微分光谱和高光谱植被指数构建的估测模型能更好地反演草地盖度。通过模型检验,确定基于560nm的光谱一阶微分模型y=-384.153x+72.096可作为草地盖度的最优估测模型,模型均方根误差为7.344%,估算精度为90.343%。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.