A review of visual soil evaluation techniques for soil structure

Soil structure forms a key component of soil quality, and its assessment by semi‐quantitative visual soil evaluation (VSE) techniques can help scientists, advisors and farmers make decisions regarding sampling and soil management. VSE techniques require inexpensive equipment and generate immediate results that correlate well with quantitative measurements of physical and biochemical properties, highlighting their potential utility. We reviewed published VSE techniques and found that soils of certain textures present problems and a lack of research into the influence of soil moisture content on VSE criteria. Generally, profile methods evaluate process interactions at specific locations within a field, exploring both intrinsic aspects and anthropogenic impacts. Spade methods focus on anthropogenic characteristics, providing rapid synopses of soil structure over wider areas. Despite a focus on structural form, some methods include criteria related to stability and resiliency. Further work is needed to improve existing methods regarding texture influences, on‐farm sampling procedures and more holistic assessments of soil structure.     

Visualizing soil behavior

Soil behavior is a function of intrinsic soil properties, interacting environmental processes, and cultural practices. Observation, prediction, and visualization of soil behavior at variable spatial and temporal scales are required to enhance our understanding of complex soil processes and to develop optimal environmental management strategies. Recent advances in information technology, simulation modeling, and computer graphics provide opportunities to convey our knowledge and perception of soil behavior under variable environmental conditions and soil management regimes. Soil information is commonly presented in textual, map, and graphical forms which often fail to convey the dynamic nature of soil behavior under field conditions. Historical and contemporary developments in the presentation of soil information and behavior are reviewed, and a framework for soil visualization is proposed.     

Effect of tillage treatments upon soil tests for soil acidity,soil phosphorus and soil potassium at three soil depths

Abstract

Soil samples were obtained at 0–3, 3–6, 6–9 and 0–9 inch depths from experimental plots receiving five tillage treatments. Each of two samplers composited approximately six one‐inch cores from each plot. Soil samples were analyzed for acidity, P and K using routine analysis procedures in the University of Illinois Soil Testing Laboratory.

Few significant differences were attributed to sampler and it was concluded that samplers using similar sampling techniques were obtaining soil samples from the same population.

No significant differences in soil acidity at different depths were observed. The different tillage methods did significantly affect soil P at the 0–3 inch depth, but had no significant effect on soil P at deeper depths. Different tillage methods also significantly affected soil K values at different depths.     

射频制热技术应用现状及土壤射频消毒展望

土壤消毒领域经过多年发展,已经形成较为成熟的应用市场。针对化学、生物等传统消毒方式已经不能满足目前土壤消毒多元需求的问题,该文聚焦现代土壤消毒的应用需求,较为明确的分析了传统消毒方式的显著效果及典型缺陷,基于现有研究基础,探索性的提出将射频制热消毒技术应用到土壤消毒领域并研制对应装备的设想。首先,综合归纳了射频制热系统的组成、分类及制热性能影响因素,并分析了射频制热不均性的基本原因;其次,梳理总结了射频制热技术在工业、医疗、纺织轻工业、林业产品加工、农副产品加工等领域的应用现状,并针对农副产品的消毒杀菌、干燥解冻等加工的发展历程进行了重点概述;再次,基于搭建的射频制热试验平台进行的土壤制热试验表明:电极结构形式对土壤制热性能的影响明显,是制热不均匀的显著影响因素;此外,结合学者的研究及土壤制热试验,从射频制热系统自身制热机理、土壤自身受热特性、物料与射频的匹配等角度深入分析了射频这种物理制方式的应用缺点,根本原因及改进方法,提出了改善土壤射频制热均匀性的建议;最后,针对未来土壤消毒领域的应用提出了田间土壤、有机质土壤射频消毒装备分开设计的思路,并基于对射频制热在其他领域应用缺陷的认知,分别提出了更合适射频制热电极结构形式与受热物料的匹配方案。该文论述可为土壤射频消毒应用领域的装备研发提供一定借鉴。     

Validation of topsoil texture derived from agricultural soil maps by current dense soil sampling

Agricultural soil maps were created to facilitate the management of fields. Such maps, at very large scale (1:5000), cover almost the entire agricultural land in Poland. These maps can be very useful for precision field management. However, they were prepared about 40–50 years ago using old mapping techniques with mainly field (organoleptic) examination of soil. For this reason it is necessary to verify agreement between such maps with the current soil status. In the case of detection of disagreements it is important to identify the causes and propose methods for improving soil maps. Only few studies were made in this aspect. The soil texture (ST) of the upper layer, as presented on the agricultural soil maps from the 1960s and 1970s, was compared with the actual ST of the same four fields in northern and central Poland. For laboratory ST determination, soil samples were collected in a dense sampling network. On average, the agreement of the ST presented on the agricultural soil maps and determined in this study was classified as medium for three fields and good for one field. However, the presence of field areas with poor agreement between the ST determined in this study and that shown on the agricultural maps was detected in all investigated fields. Identified causes for this comprised imprecision of ST determination using the organoleptic method, the generalization of the soil quality maps, and erosion processes during the years between soil mapping and this investigation. The improvement of ST presentation on the large scale soil maps might be achieved by quite denser soil sampling for ST analysis supported by ECa, yield and NDVI maps.     

Field soil aggregate stability kit for soil quality and rangeland health evaluations

Soil aggregate stability is widely recognized as a key indicator of soil quality and rangeland health. However, few standard methods exist for quantifying soil stability in the field. A stability kit is described which can be inexpensively and easily assembled with minimal tools. It permits up to 18 samples to be evaluated in less than 10 min and eliminates the need for transportation, minimizing damage to soil structure. The kit consists of two 21×10.5×3.5 cm plastic boxes divided into eighteen 3.5×3.5 cm sections, eighteen 2.5-cm diameter sieves with 1.5-mm distance openings and a small spatula used for soil sampling. Soil samples are rated on a scale from one to six based on a combination of ocular observations of slaking during the first 5 min following immersion in distilled water, and the percent remaining on a 1.5-mm sieve after five dipping cycles at the end of the 5-min period. A laboratory comparison yielded a correlation between the stability class and percent aggregate stability based on oven dry weight remaining after treatment using a mechanical sieve. We have applied the method in a wide variety of agricultural and natural ecosystems throughout western North America, including northern Mexico, and have found that it is highly sensitive to differences in management and plant community composition. Although the field kit cannot replace the careful laboratory-based measurements of soil aggregate stability, it can clearly provide valuable information when these more intensive procedures are not possible.     

苏北海涂围垦区土壤质量综合评价研究

以苏北海涂围垦区为研究区域,选取与作物生长密切相关的理化性质作为评价指标,分别采用相关分析法与主成分分析法确定权重系数,并应用综合指数法对土壤质量进行定量评价,获取区域土壤质量综合评价分级图.结果表明:围垦区土壤质量状况总体较差,存在一定程度盐渍化危害,土壤有机质和氮素含量偏低,碱解氮亏缺尤为严重.有机质是重要的土壤质量评价因子,土壤盐分与地下水矿化度是土壤质量的主要限制因子.相关分析法和主成分分析法对土壤质量的评价结果较为一致,r2 = 0.933 9**.围垦区不同部位土壤质量差异较大,围垦区西部棉花地土壤质量总体优于东部水稻地,且不同评价方法得到的土壤质量分级图具有空间相似性.该结果可为滩涂区中、低产地的精确施肥、障碍土壤的科学管理提供参考依据.     

土壤厚度的划分标准与案例研究

土壤厚度一般包括土体厚度和有效土层厚度,它能直观地表达土壤性质。基于前人对于土壤厚度定义及相关厚度指标划分所做的工作,结合笔者所在课题组长期野外考察经验,从土壤发生学角度明确了土体的概念,并提出针对不同土壤类型和土地利用方式对应的土体厚度和有效土层厚度的具体划分方法。利用新提出的划分标准对近些年国内各省野外采集的16个剖面(包括安徽、湖北、山东、青海、甘肃、内蒙古等省份)进行具体厚度划分,为国内今后有关研究提供参考。     

Assessment of soil texture class on agricultural fields using ECa,Amber NDVI,and topographic properties

Soil texture (ST) is relatively stable over time, although it may change due to erosion, clay eluviation, and other processes. Soil texture affects soil quality, productivity and management. Therefore, indirect, accurate methods for assessing of soil texture classes (STCs) are needed in agricultural practice. A study was performed on four production fields in northern and central Poland to compare the fitting performance of STC models based on apparent electrical conductivity (ECa), topographic properties (elevation, slope gradient and wetness index) and Amber NDVI measurements. One common and accurate indicator of STCs was not found for all study fields. On average, ECa was most accurate in indicating areas of different STCs within the fields, but it tended to overestimate the size of sandy areas on loamy fields and vice versa. The accuracy of STC assessment using ECa measurements may be biased due to imperfect soil drainage, high elevations, which increase evaporation and STC variation with depth. STC assessment using Amber NDVI measurements may be useful, particularly on flat and sandy fields, but the results are affected by the same factors as ECa, and additionally by crop growth stages and by the weather conditions in the period preceding the measurements. Despite the good quantitative results of the STC assessment by elevation (one field) and by the topographic wetness index (another field), both terrain attributes failed to accurately indicate the distribution of some STC areas within each field. Therefore, in landscapes developed from deposits of the last glaciation relevant ST differences might not sufficiently be detected by the analysis of terrain attributes alone. The selection of STC predictors and evaluation of the assessment quality must consider both the quantitative indicators such as correlation and determination coefficients describing relationships between ST and ECa, NDVI and topography and percentage of a field area with accurately indicated STC and the distribution of areas with different STCs within a field. The use of ECa, NDVI values, and topographic properties for STC assessment may be useful in reducing costs of soil sampling and analysis, but cannot replace it.     

基于MAPGIS的莱西市土壤数据库建立研究

以莱西市第二次土壤普查数据资料,野外采样分析资料,土壤与土地利用状况调查资料为依据,通过MAPGIS软件平台,建立了以村级土种类型图斑为基本单元的空间数据库.应用Visual FoxPro数据库软件输入相关属性数据,采用"村名+土种类型+数字"方法建立关键字段,连接属性数据库与空间数据库,构建了莱西市土壤数据库.探讨了建立莱西市土壤数据库的流程和技术要点,可为莱西市土壤资源管理与决策服务,并为其它县域土壤数据库的建立提供参考.     

Evaluating an integrated approach to catchment management to reduce soil loss and sediment pollution through modelling

Abstract. Soil erosion and sediment delivery cause many environmental problems posing a substantial financial burden upon society. Policy makers therefore look for a strategy to minimize their impact. The spatial nature of soil erosion and sediment delivery, as well as the variety of possible soil conservation and sediment control measures, requires an integrated approach to catchment management. To evaluate such management, a spatially distributed soil erosion and sediment delivery model is necessary. Such a model (WaTEM/SEDEM) was applied to three agricultural catchments in Flanders (Belgium). The model was first used to identify where the measures to control soil loss should be taken. Secondly, a scenario analysis was used to select the most effective set of techniques. The findings showed that soil conservation measures taken in fields are not only effective in reducing on-site soil loss, but also in drastically reducing sediment yield. Off-site sediment control measures appear to be much less effective in reducing sediment yield than previously thought. The results also suggest that data from field experiments cannot be extrapolated to a catchment scale.     

Soil survey interpretation: Estimating use-potentials of a clay soil under various moisture regimes

Current Dutch soil survey interpretation emphasizes assessment factors which independently define key aspects of soil behavior under actual conditions. For grassland these are: moisture-supply capacity, bearing capacity and drainage status. Practical questions focus on how actual limitations can be overcome. Computer simulation techniques, to be focused on the individual assessment factors, are needed to answer these questions. Soil survey and morphology data were used in this context to: (1) select experimental sites; (2) modify physical monitoring procedures; (3) derive simulation models for swelling soils with macropores; (4) develop simple field methods for characterizing basic physical soil properties and their regional variability, and (5) use soil maps for extrapolating the obtained interpretations.Future soil survey reports should ideally contain basic physical data and the possible ranges for the different assessment factors, expressed by simulation as a function of water management. basic data include hydraulic conductivity, moisture retention, bearing capacity and drainage rate. The latter two were characterized in this study by new field methods. Possible ranges differ for the different assessment factors. For example, an inadequate moisture supply capacity in the growing season can be completely compensated by raising the water table, by sprinkler irrigation or by a combination of both methods. The presented simulation offers a quantitative analysis. The inadequate bearing capacity and drainage status can be compensated for only partly by lower water-table levels in winter and spring.     

红壤稻田土壤理化及生物学性状的动态变化特征

Rice production plays a crucial role in the food supply of China and a better understanding of the changes in paddy soil fertility and the management effects is of practical importance for increasing rice productivity. In this study, field sampling in a typical red soil region of subtropical China, Jiangxi Province, was used to observe changes in the soil physical, chemical, and biological properties in a cultivation chronosequence of paddy fields. After cultivation, clay (< 0.002 mm) content in the soil, which was 39% in the original uncultivated wasteland, decreased, to 17% in the 80-year paddy field, while silt (0.02--0.002 mm) content increased. Additionally, macroporosity increased and pore shapes became more homogeneous. Soil Ph generally increased. Soil organic C and total N content of the 0-10 cm layer increased from 4.58 and 0.39 g kg-1 to 19.6 and 1.62 g kg-1, respectively in the paddy fields after 30-year cultivation and then remained stable. Soil total P content increased from 0.5 to 1.3 g kg-1 after 3 years of rice cultivation, indicating that application of phosphate fertilizer could accelerate phosphorous accumulation in the soil. Total K content in the 0--10 cm soil layer for the 80-year paddy fields decreased by 28% compared to that of the uncultivated wasteland land. Total Fe and free Fe contents declined with years of cultivation. The bacterial population increased and urease activity noticeably intensified after years of cultivation. In this chronosequence it appeared that it took 30 years to increase soil fertility to a relatively constant value that was seen after 80 years of cultivation.     

Temporal changes in the spatial distributions of some soil properties on a temperate grassland site

Abstract. Precision Agriculture seeks to match resource application and agronomic practice with soil and crop requirements as they vary in both space and time. Therefore, an understanding of both the temporal and the spatial components of variability is essential before decisions can be made about the feasibility of site-specific management. In the present study, the spatial and the temporal components of variability in certain key soil properties of a grassland field were evaluated to assess the likely feasibility of adopting a site-specific approach to grassland management. A 7.9 ha grassland field was selected for the study and soil samples were taken three times at regular 25 m intervals across the field over a two year period, and chemically analysed. Classical and geostatistical procedures were used to evaluate the spatial variability and the temporal stability of soil property distributions. Soil extractable P and K had the greatest within-field variability and soil pH the least. Soil K distributions were also highly unstable over time and it was concluded that the optimal risk aversion strategy would be to apply uniform dressings of this nutrient to the entire field. In contrast, soil pH, P, Mg and sulphate distributions were not only temporally stable, but were also spatially correlated over reasonably large ranges. It was concluded that these properties might be managed in a site-specific way based on the results of periodic soil testing in three clearly defined management sub-units within the field. Over the two year period, C and N accumulated in the soil at surprisingly high rates on certain parts of the field but not in others.     

The response of soil biochemical variables to organic and conventional cultivation of Asparagus sp.

In this paper we aim to examine long-term effects caused by applying alternative management regimes to soil system, such as organic farming, and to compare them with short-term effects represented by seasonal agricultural steps such as fertilizing, harvesting, etc. To complete this task we focus on soil quality in organic and conventional fields. We compared soil biochemical variables among fields with different durations of organic cultivation (2, 3, 5 and 6 years) and one with conventional cultivation (CV). All fields were planted with a common perennial plant (Asparagus officinalis L.) and were subject to the same seasonal management cycle (fertilizing, crop harvest, incorporation of above-ground residues, etc.). Soil samples were collected four times throughout a year (March, May, September, December) corresponding to the main phases of the management cycle. The questions explored in this study were the following: (a) Do long-term changes due to the management regime (organic vs. conventional) have a greater effect upon soil variables than the seasonal (short-term) changes within the management cycle itself? (b) On the basis of soil biochemical status, can we distinguish between fields that have been under organic cultivation for different durations? (c) Do the importance of variables in fields’ distinction related to specific management phases?According to principal component analysis, we found that the soil biochemical status owed far more to the phase within the management cycle than to the management regime. Among sampling periods, December was characterized by greater heterogeneity of soil variables, which could be attributed to biomass laying on the soil surface which stimulated the microbial community with consequent changes in NH₄⁺, NO₃^?, N-mineralization and C-mineralization rate. The importance of soil variables in fields’ distinction was related to the specific management phase. The differences among fields, even in the cases of extractable P and organic N were not systematic. In addition, 10% of samples of the oldest organic field, shared common soil features with samples belonging to the newest organically cultivated field. This high intra-variability showed that none of the examined fields has developed systematically different soil characteristics. Therefore, our data show, at least for some crops, that indicators of soil quality (e.g. organic C and microbial biomass C) need not always improve with the duration of organic cultivation in a simple manner.     

Small scale digital soil mapping in Southeastern Kenya

Digital soil mapping techniques appear to be an interesting alternative for traditional soil survey techniques. However, most applications deal with (semi-)detailed soil surveys where soil variability is determined by a limited number of soil forming factors. The question that remains is whether digital soil mapping techniques are equally suitable for exploratory or reconnaissance soil surveys in more extensive areas with limited data availability. We applied digital soil mapping in a 13,500 km² study area in Kenya with the main aim to create a reconnaissance soil map to assess clay and soil organic carbon contents in terraced maize fields. Soil spatial variability prediction was based on environmental correlation using the concepts of the soil forming factors equation. During field work, 95 composite soil samples were collected. Auxiliary spatially exhaustive data provided insight on the spatial variation of climate, land cover, topography and parent material. The final digital soil maps were elaborated using regression kriging. The variance explained by the regression kriging models was estimated as 13% and 37% for soil organic carbon and clay respectively. These results were confirmed by cross-validation and provide a significant improvement compared to the existing soil survey.     

中国土壤环境监测装备领域专利情报分析

土壤环境动态数据可为农业可持续发展和环境管理决策提供科学依据。研发成本低、性能稳定且精度高的土壤监测装备是实现土壤数据快速获取的关键。基于incoPat科技创新情报平台,检索了2000年至2019年期间国内外土壤环境监测装备的专利产出,对专利申请数量、技术构成、区域分布、主要申请人、法律状态等方面进行了分析,以揭示中国土壤环境监测装备领域的研发状况、技术发展趋势和产学研合作情况。结果表明,近年来,中国土壤环境监测装备领域专利数量急剧增加;土壤监测指标从土壤肥力指标向污染物和生物监测指标拓展,结合现代信息技术等新兴技术发展智能化的原位监测装备正在发展,新的研发充分考虑了定性与定量的结合;我国在土壤环境监测装备领域的专利申请人多隶属高校和科研院所,企业参与度较低。综上,土壤污染物和生物指标的监测已成为焦点,生物和信息新技术成果正逐步引入土壤环境监测设备的开发;中国在土壤环境监测装备领域的产学研合作研发亟需加强。     

龙门山地震带坡耕地土壤侵蚀对有机碳迁移的影响

坡耕地土壤再分布对土壤有机碳(SOC,soil organic carbon)迁移的作用机制研究已成为土壤侵蚀学研究的热点,然而目前极少有研究关注地震后生态脆弱的龙门山地震带坡耕地土壤侵蚀机理及其导致的土壤有机碳再分布规律。该研究选择龙门山地震带内(都江堰市)一块陡坡耕地和一个梯田系列,采用137Cs法和野外调查,对比分析强震导致田埂垮塌和未受损情况下坡耕地土壤侵蚀空间变化特征和有机碳运移变化机理。结果表明,该区黄棕壤有效137Cs背景值为1 473 Bq/m2;坡度较小的坡式梯田内部上坡表现为侵蚀,下坡表现为沉积,同时,上部梯田的侵蚀速率高于下部梯田,但整个梯田系列净侵蚀量非常小,这表明梯田之间由于缺乏田埂的保护,水力也起着侵蚀、搬运上坡梯田土壤的作用,但是整个坡式梯田系列可以起到较好的保土作用,同时,坡式梯田内部主要以耕作侵蚀为主,是造成梯田上部坡位土壤流失严重的主要原因;陡坡耕地的地形为复合坡,由于田埂垮塌导致其土壤侵蚀速率显著高于坡式梯田系列,在整个坡面上,除了坡顶土壤侵蚀速率高之外,下坡坡度变大(曲率较大)的部位土壤侵蚀速率也非常高,同时,土壤沉积也发生在2个坡位(中下坡坡度较缓的部位和坡脚部位);在梯田系列和陡坡耕地上,SOC与土壤137Cs的空间变化规律较为一致。研究结果表明,在龙门山地震带,质量较好的石埂梯田仍然发挥着较好的土壤保持效果,同时,耕作侵蚀是该区坡耕地上一种重要的土壤侵蚀形式,在制定相应的土壤保持措施时,必须充分考虑耕作侵蚀的作用,才能有效地控制土壤侵蚀,此外,该研究结果还表明采用137Cs核素示踪技术可以比较科学地解释该区域的土壤侵蚀速率和SOC的空间变异规律。     

转Bt基因棉对土壤无脊椎动物群落结构的影响

采用干、湿漏斗分离法,运用群落生态学方法,研究了转Bt基因棉"GK12"和"新棉33B"对棉田0～15 cm土层土壤无脊椎动物群落结构的影响.结果表明,线虫和螨类为棉田土壤无脊椎动物优势类群,其频度分别为54%以上和18%以上,与亲本常规棉"泗棉3号"相比,"GK12"提高了土壤线蚓数量,但降低了某些土壤无脊椎动物类群(如同翅目、目和双翅目)的数量;两种Bt棉田中,"新棉33B"棉田的同翅目昆虫数量显著高于"GK12",蜘蛛目数量显著低于"GK12"棉田,其他土壤无脊椎动物类群的数量则基本上无显著差异."GK12"显著降低了土壤无脊椎动物类群的丰富度、多样性和均匀度;两种Bt棉中,"新棉33B"棉田土壤无脊椎动物类群的丰富度、多样性和均匀度较高.Renyi多样性指数曲线也表明,"GK12"棉田各土层土壤无脊椎动物群落的多样性均显著低于"泗棉3号"棉田;"新棉33B"棉田各土层土壤无脊椎动物群落的多样性高于"GK12",但10～15 cm土层常见类群和优势类群的多样性较低.在各土层中,土壤无脊椎动物数量、多样性指数和均匀度指数动态在不同类型棉田趋势基本相同.7～11月期间,10月是土壤无脊椎动物数量的高峰期,此时在"泗棉3号"棉田土壤无脊椎动物在0～5 cm的表层和10～15 cm的深层土壤均较多,在"GK12"和"新棉33B"棉田则集中于10～15 cm的深层土壤.11月, "泗棉3号"土壤无脊椎动物类群的多样性和均匀度呈下降趋势,"GK12"则呈上升趋势.可见,种植Bt棉"GK12"可改变某些土壤无脊椎动物类群的数量,降低类群的丰富度、多样性和均匀度;两种Bt棉田的土壤无脊椎动物群落结构也有一定的差异,"新棉33B"棉田土壤无脊椎动物群落的多样性高于"GK12".