Non-timber forest products and household incomes in Bonga forest area,southwestern Ethiopia

We identified the major non-timber forest products （NTFPs）, their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influenc-ing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles （the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia） were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using propor-tional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified liveli-hood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs （forest coffee, honey and spices） accounted for 47% of annual household in-come. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Vari-ables including being native to the area （＋）, total land holding （＋）, pos-session of livestock （＋） and access to extension （＋） significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head （-）, land holding （＋） and distance of the market from the residence （-） significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding （＋）, distance to market （-） and distance of the forest from the residence （-） were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered.     

Household economy and tree growing in upland Central Java

This article tries to identify the key variables that determine landuse patterns and the strategies of households towards tree growing in two upland regions in Central Java. A household's access to land and market opportunities appear to be such key variables. Households with little land use their land more intensively with respect to crop, livestock and tree production. So do households with access to market opportunities. Based on this type of diagnostic research more appropriate tree-based designs could be developed to contribute to the solution of landuse problems in the uplands of Java.     

Market Integration and Livelihood Systems: A Comparative Case of Three Asháninka Villages in the Peruvian Amazon

ABSTRACT

The strong trend in indigenous societies toward market integration often results in loss of traditional cultural elements and changes in livelihood systems. This comparative study of three Asháninka villages located at different distances to market had two objectives: (a) to describe and analyze the current livelihood system of the three villages in terms of their goals, activities, and resources; and (b) to analyze the livelihood system in relation to market integration at both village and household levels. Two variables were used to measure market integration: (a) quantification of the value of Western goods at the household level, and (b) area under cultivation per household designated to both household subsistence and external market. We found that although walking time to market was inversely proportional to market integration and directly proportional to traditional practices at the village level, two different trends of market integration were found at the household level: (a) basic market integration, clearly apparent in households at all three villages; and (b) high market integration, found solely in the two villages closest in time to market. The existence of market–integrated, less traditional households side by side with minimally integrated, traditional households appeared to be linked to differences in household goals and strategies and perhaps availability of male labor. Market integration increased workloads on productive activities oriented to the market for both genders, but only men marketed these products for sale.     

Factors affecting the dynamics of tree diversity in agroforestry parklands of cereal and cotton farming systems in Burkina Faso

Despite their socio-economic and ecological role, many studies have shown that the parklands are degrading very rapidly. Therefore, there is a need to undertake restoration actions for both production and environmental services. To do so, there is a need to identify factors that are affecting the dynamics of parkland systems. The present study aimed at characterizing and quantifying tree diversity of parkland systems taking into consideration the household’s wealth status, land uses, market access and the type of farming system (cereal based on the “Plateau Central” and cotton based in “Boucle du Mouhoun”). Six villages (Kienfangué, Ipelcé, and Kuizili with easy access to the market and, Karang-Tanghin, Nionsna and Targho with poor access to the market) in the “Plateau Central” and six villages (Bondoukuy, Ouahabou and Yaho with easy access to the market and, Dora, Fakéna and Mamou with poor access to the market) in “Boucle du Mouhoun” were studied. In each village, the Participatory Analysis of Poverty and Livelihood Dynamics method was used by rural farmers to rank farmer households of their communities and that gave three groups of wealth status that are poor, fairly well-off and well-off. Five households representing each of the three wealth groups in each village, giving a total of 15 households per village, were randomly selected by wealth group. Tree/shrub inventories were conducted in all land use types (house fields, village fields and bush fields) of the 180 selected households for the 12 studied sites. The number of species in the different land use types ranged from 96 to 102, but the majority of species were represented by less than 10 individuals. This indicates the selection effect made by the farmers to the parklands. Land use and farming system showed a clear effect on tree diversity in parklands. The effect of accessibility to market was evident in some cases whereas wealth status did not show any effect. Despite the statistical significant effect of farming system and land use type, the ANOVA models accounted for relatively little variation, indicating that other factors may contribute to tree diversity in parkland systems. The most threatened species were Adansonia digitata, Afzelia africana, Bombax costatum, Celtis integrifolia, Ficus asperifolia, Ficus iteophylla, Lannea velutina, and Parkia biglobosa. These species were represented in the largest diameter class (≥80 cm) or showed very few individuals in the different diameter classes. Due to the increasing degradation of the parklands, a domestication and conservation strategy of key threatened species needs to be developed and implemented with the participation of local communities.     

Tree Planting by Smallholder Farmers in the Upper Catchment of Lake Tana Watershed,Northwest Ethiopia

Tree growing by smallholder farmers is an emerging livelihood strategy in Lake Tana catchment. The objectives of this study were to (1) identify the most important tree species grown, (2) investigate the drivers of the existing pattern, and (3) identify determinants of the number and diversity of tree species and their spatial patterns. Survey data were collected from 200 households. Multiple linear regression was employed to identify the determinants of tree growing behaviour of households and spatial variables affecting the abundance of tree species. Eucalyptus globulus, Acacia decurrens and E. camaldulensis dominate woodlots. Only a fraction of the forest production is used by the households, the rest being sold as poles or charcoal. Location in relation to market centres, number of livestock owned, landholding size and age of household head were found to positively affected the number of tree species and trees grown. Gender affected the species and spatial pattern of trees. Woodlots, farm boundaries and homesteads were found to be important tree growing niches. These results substantiate the proposition that farmers assign their parcels of land to uses that increase the rent value of the land, and this value is affected by access to roads. Woodlots are on the increase at the cost of productive agricultural land. Provision of a tree planting extension service may increase participation of farmers in tree planting, and a management-oriented tree planting extension service may give desirable results.     

Impact of alternative livelihood interventions on household welfare: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Livelihoods of a large number of households in Ethiopia depend on environmental resources. On the other hand, excessive reliance of households on environmental resources for their sustenance has already lead to high rates of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia. A project was set out to provide alternative livelihood activities in order to improve the welfare of vulnerable families who derive their livelihoods mainly from selling firewood and charcoal. The project provided support to women groups to engage in income generating activities that create alternative means of livelihoods. This paper assesses the impacts of participating in alternative livelihood activities on household welfare and environmental protection in rural Ethiopia. The paper uses data from cross-sectional survey involving 450 sample households to examine the difference in household welfare between project participants and non-participants using propensity score matching and inverse probability weighting estimator with regression adjustment. Empirical results show that participation in alternative livelihood activities has contributed to increment in total grain production, increased household income and adoption of natural resources management technologies. Project households consumed more diverse food across food groups and earned an extra $35 per month from local market sales of tree and fruit seedlings. The result was robust and consistent across models. The findings support the notion that new streams of income generating activities can lead to improvements in household's well-being as well as reduction in environmental degradation.     

农户林地流转提高林业生产效率吗?——分树种情况下DEA-Tobit模型分析

基于广东、浙江、广西、安徽4省（区）的农户调查数据,运用DEA-Tobit模型两步法分析农户林地流转对不同树种生产效率的影响。结果发现,从平均水平看,农户林业生产的综合技术效率、纯技术效率和规模效率分别为0.296 1、0.506 1和0.508 3,且流转户在这3个方面的水平均高于非流转户,但不明显;从分树种来看,单个树种在这3个方面的提高程度也并不明显,且林地流转与否对这3个方面的影响并不都是正向显著的。因此,农户林地流转未必能显著提高林业生产效率,政策鼓励需要针对不同树种生产特征差异进行匹配。     

Gender and agroforestry in Africa: a review of women’s participation

This paper presents a review of agroforestry in Africa from a gender perspective. It examines women’s participation relative to men and the challenges and successes they experience. Particular agroforestry practices examined include fodder production and utilization, soil fertility management, woodlots and indigenous fruit and vegetable production and processing. The review shows that agroforestry has the potential to offer substantial benefits to women; however, their participation is low in enterprises that are considered men’s domain, such as timber and high in enterprises that have little or no commercial value, such as collection of indigenous fruits and vegetables. Furthermore, the degree of women’s involvement relative to men in technologies such as soil fertility management, fodder production and woodlots is fairly high in terms of proportion of female-headed households participating but is low as measured by the area they allocate to these activities and the number of trees they plant. Data on whether women are able to manage agroforestry practices as well as men are mixed, although it is clear that women do most of the work. In cases where they do not perform well, the reasons are mostly due to scarcity of resources. In marketing, women are confined to the lower end of the value chain (retailing), which limits their control over and returns from the productive process. In order to promote gender equity in agroforestry and to ensure that women benefit fully, the paper recommends various policy, technological and institutional interventions. These include (1) facilitating women to form and strengthen associations, (2) assisting women to improve productivity and marketing of products considered to be in womens’ domain and (3) improving women’s access to information by training more women extension staff, holding separate meetings for women farmers, and ensuring that women are fully represented in all activities.     

Conversion of traditional village gardens and new economic strategies of rural households in the area of Bogor,Indonesia

Multistoried village gardens in the vicinity of Bogor (West Java, Indonesia) have long been essential multi-purpose production systems for low-income households. However they are being subjected to important conversion processes linked to socio-economic changes presently found in overcrowded semi-urban zones. Determining factors in their development are a high population increase and the rise of a market economy. Some gardens tend to specialize in commercial growing of fruits or of export crops, others are colonized by houses and associated home-gardens. Traditional gardens gradually lose their earlier ecological and economic features but also become a major asset for the modernization of village economy and society. In addition they bring socio-professional changes to villagers and play a determining role in the search for a new balance in the relationship between cities and villages.     

Applications of environmental accounting and the new household economics: new technical economic issues with a common theme in forestry

This paper reviews environmental accounting and the new household economics (NHE) as important new developments for forest economics, and particularly for assessing non-market and non-timber forest products. The concept of adjusting the national accounts for forest depletion has received a lot of attention, but forest-based household services, like outdoor recreation in developed countries or fuelwood in developing countries, may have greater impacts on the national accounts. NHE is an econometric approach for valuing forest-related household services like these. In general, the NHE allows complete estimates based on revealed preferences for the production, supply and demand of goods and services that some households produce and consume internally. Complete estimates are critical in economies where household services dominate market production and consumption, and where market observations alone would be partial and would misguide policy decisions. Therefore, household services are the important area of application for both environmental accounting and NHE. Applications of each hold special promise for our understanding of the forestry activities of subsistence households in developing countries.     

Community forests in Baden-Württemberg (Germany): A case study for successful Public-Public-Partnership

This paper examines the current situation and future prospects for community forestry in the south-west of Germany. A classification of functional types of community forests and a unique form of forest administration as an appropriate reaction to the intensive mixture of ownership types are explained. In most cases institutional support is more important than direct measure-related subsidies. The results of customer satisfaction analysis and indicators including participation in the state ranger system provide evidence that the model of Public-Public-Partnership (PuPuP) has proved successful. The role of various forest functions in the individual community is highlighted. High productivity in community forests, increasing wood consumption in the housing sector and increasing use for energy production suggest favourable prospects for community forestry in Baden-Württemberg. Equally important are efforts to increase technical efficiency of production. Improved stakeholder communication can result in a better perception of the importance of forestry. The paper also identifies relevant threats to community forestry. The increasing cost-price squeeze is one of the crucial risks for communal forest enterprises. Additionally, an anti-trust campaign of the timber industry endangers their market position. A reorganisation of the state forest administration will result in a lower level of financial and institutional support.     

Market Channels for Highland Bamboo Poles Originated from Hula District,Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopia

Ethiopia is one of the countries well-endowed with bamboo (Arundinaria alpine, a highland bamboo, and Oxytenanthera abyssinica, a lowland bamboo species). As compared to its potential, however, the contribution of bamboo to producer livelihoods and the national economy is very low. This paper describes the bamboo production-consumption system in the Hula district of Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Data include primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected from 160 farmers, 38 traders and 30 consumers using household surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data were then analyzed using a value chain analysis. In the district, all households produced bamboo and allocated on average of 1/6 of their total land holding to bamboo production. Bamboo poles, the primary products, were identified as differentiated products in the market based on length, diameter, circumference, and the intended use of the poles into four major types. In 2014, 26,825 poles of Type 1 bamboo were harvested followed by 25,269 poles of Type 2. The amount harvested from Type 3 and Type 4 bamboos were 17,661 and 20,090 poles, respectively. The value chain analysis revealed that the major actors in the production to consumption system of bamboo were farmers, brokers, wholesalers, craftsmen, house constructors and domestic users. The results indicated that each type has a distinct value chain, with differentiated pricing and use pattern. The major limiting factors identified included absence of value added production and poor market linkage. This study supports the need for further research and investment in value added production alternatives and improved market access. Policies that support farmers’ access to modern production systems, establishment of cooperatives and improved extension system will also likely to accelerate the efficiency and effectiveness of the value chain.     

安吉县毛竹现代园区生产经营状况调查与分析

采用参与式农户评估方法(PRA)对安吉县毛竹现代园区进行调查,分析了农户生产经营方式的变迁。结果表明,当前农户收入方式正发生结构性变迁,传统的以经营竹林为主要收入来源的生产方式已逐渐向工资性和多种林业经营生产方式转变,农户兼业特征明显,农村劳动力明显不足;随着林权制度的改革与市场经济的发展,有效配置林地资源,实现林农生产经营的规模化、商品化和科技化,建设林业专业合作组织,提高林农自身组织化程度,是当前农户生产经营方式的主要发展趋势。     

Smallholder Teak and Agrarian Change in Northern Laos

Smallholder teak (Tectona grandis) plantations have become increasingly prominent in the landscape of Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR. While the global market for teak-wood is attractive, investment has been driven by a range of factors, including changes to land legislation, land-use planning, taxation incentives, and government and non-government programs and promotions. The establishment of teak stands provides a labour-saving land use for households, potentially freeing up household resources for other farm and non-farm opportunities. However, the degree to which households can participate in the industry varies within and between villages. This paper reviews some of the underlying incentives for the expansion of teak plantations, examines the livelihood activities of both teak and non-teak producers in five case study villages in Luang Prabang, and explores the differential outcomes emerging from the expansion of smallholder teak production. The survey revealed that teak planting has been more extensive among households with a longer history of settlement, where the household head is older and better educated, where household members have off-farm sources of income, and where the household has access to paddy land and is thus more likely to be self-sufficient in rice. Households that depend on shifting cultivation for their livelihoods, without access to alternative productive land or income sources, will continue to have difficulty planting teak or holding on to the land they do manage to plant. The paper concludes that the establishment and improvement of teak plantations, like other apparently technical interventions aimed at providing a ‘pathway out of poverty’, need to be seen in the context of wider processes of agrarian change and differentiation to appreciate the resultant impacts on livelihood trajectories.     

Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria

Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies. Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

Effect of Participation in Commercial Production of Medicinal Plants through Community-Based Conservation Groups on Farm Income at Kakamega Forest,Kenya

ABSTRACT

Forest conservation by peripheral communities is one of the most advocated strategies for ensuring sustainable supply of forest goods and services. In Kenya, although conservation activities generate considerable environmental improvements, studies evaluating the economic benefits are very limited. This study aimed at assessing the impact of participating in the commercialization training program by forest adjacent communities on farm income. Utilizing matching techniques, the analysis is based on the data collected from a randomly selected sample of farm households around Kakamega forest in Kenya. The results show that age, forest distance, forest benefit, market distance, and farming experience are the main factors that influence the participation in the commercialization program. Also, participating in commercial production of medicinal plants has a positive and significant effect on farmers’ income. The average treatment effect on the treated (ATT), based on three estimation algorithms, ranges from KSH. 80,047 to KSH. 176,788 per hectare, per year, implying that policy efforts that focus on the participation in the commercialization program of medicinal plants can enhance incomes among farm-dependent households. The findings from this study suggest that upscaling the participation in the commercialization program to other areas.     

Trees outside forests and rural livelihoods: a study of Chitwan District,Nepal

Trees outside forests (TOF) in Nepal’s Terai have significantly increased over the past decade. The Chitwan District was one of the focus districts in the Terai Community Forestry Development Project that promoted a tree seedling distribution program. This paper examines the current position of tree integration on farmland and its contribution to livelihoods of rural households in this district. Interviews with local key informants, government and non-government agencies and wood-based industries, as well as an in-depth study of 32 households were used to describe the constraints faced by the households in management of trees on farmland. Most households cited disease, poor growth, lack of preferred tree species, lack of technical support, an uncertain tree market, and lack of financial support as constraints. Despite the important role of trees in subsistence and market-based rural livelihood diversification, and the consequent reduction in pressure on national forests from on-farm trees, current government policies and practices fail to recognise the value of these trees. It is argued that there is substantial potential for improving on-farm trees to enhance rural livelihoods. A responsive service mechanism centred on tree growing households would help the management of tree resources on the farmland.     

Determinants of engagement in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) business activities: A study on worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains,northeastern China

This study used data of 128 worker households that possessed woodland resources and owned by seven forestry bureaus (counties) belonging to the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains to analyze the behavioral characteristics of worker households that engaged in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) business activities. A logistic regression model was utilized to analyze factors that influenced worker households to engage in NTFPs business activities. The study found the following: NTFPs collection activities had become the primary NTFPs business activity engaged in by the worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains because of the relatively small investment needed as well as fewer production and operating risks. The engagement of worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains in NTFPs business activities was still in a preliminary stage. Whether or not worker households engaged in NTFPs business activities was not affected by household head or household manpower characteristics; rather, worker households were more willing to engage in NTFPs business activities when the households had bank deposits, homes were close to the woodlands, the woodlands had good quality soil, and the households received social services.