Development of animal welfare standards for the livestock transport industry: process,challenges, and implementation

Commencing in 2007, a collaborative project to develop the ”National Animal Welfare Standards for the Livestock Transport Industry” (the Standards) was completed and the documentation was integrated with the existing industry quality assurance (QA) program, TruckCare. The project was the fifth in a series of 6 projects commencing from 1998, to develop industry-wide animal welfare standards and accompanying audit material for the livestock industries, including poultry, pork, dairy, meat processing, and saleyards. Three booklets covering animal welfare practice for the livestock transport industry were produced: a Standards Manual, a Working Manual, and Background Information and Rationale (Edge et al., 2007a, Edge et al., 2007b, Edge et al., 2007c). The documentation was designed to further both industry's and the community's expectations of the high levels of QA associated with livestock transport.Factors that influenced the need for the project include the increasing demand for sound, science-based animal welfare standards by customers for various markets (Blandford et al., 1999; Verbeke et al., 2000), the development of international guidelines (OIE, 2007), and in the near future in Australia, new legislative requirements that are currently being considered as part of the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy initiative, a national framework supported by all jurisdictions. The Standards were developed to underpin existing legislation, including the Model Codes of Practice, scientific literature where available, and current industry practice. The Standards were integrated with the existing industry QA program, TruckCare (2007), for industry to demonstrate animal welfare practices that underpin legislative and commercial standards. A management group comprising representatives from government, welfare organizations, industry, customer organizations, and other technical experts contributed to the development of the Standards by means of a consensus approach. The Standards were accompanied by implementation material to enable uptake within the livestock transport industry and for the delivery of assurance on animal welfare practice to government, customers, trading partners, and consumers. This paper describes the project to develop the national industry animal welfare Standards for livestock transport.     

Veterinary surgeons' opinions on dog welfare issues

Objectives : To begin to determine the significance of various dog welfare issues as perceived by veterinary practitioners. Methods : Using an online questionnaire, respondents were asked how frequently they were made aware of 12 welfare issues and how important they felt each one was for each dog affected. Respondents were also asked how much they agreed with statements that the veterinary practitioners in their area, and the veterinary profession, should do more about each issue. Results : Responses were received from 59 practitioners. The most frequently noted problems were “obesity”, “chronic pain/poor mobility” and “breed‐related conditions”. The most important issues for each dog affected were “lack of treatment for suffering”, “abuse or active cruelty” and “malnutrition”. “Breed‐related conditions”, “obesity” and “behavioural problems” were the issues for which there was greatest agreement that veterinary practitioners should do more, both in their area and as a profession. Clinical Significance : This pilot study suggests that the veterinary profession believes that obesity, breed‐related conditions and behavioural problems are important concerns, and that more should be done about them. Although these results cannot be taken as definitive from a study of this size, it does provide a background for such further work involving companion dog welfare and the veterinary profession.     

Number of cats and dogs in UK welfare organisations

It is not known how many cats and dogs are admitted to welfare organisations annually. This study produced the first estimates of the size of this population. A questionnaire was mailed out to welfare organisations during 2010, followed by a postal/email reminder and requests to non-responders for a telephone interview. The questionnaire covered areas including, the current number of cats and dogs being housed, how much of the year organisations were operating at full capacity as well as the number of cats and dogs admitted, rehomed and euthanased between January and December 2009. Responses were obtained from 54.8 per cent of organisations. Sixty-six per cent of cat welfare organisations and 48 per cent of dog welfare organisations reported that they operated at full capacity for 12 months of the year. The number of cats and dogs entering UK welfare organisations during 2009 was estimated as 131,070 and 129,743, respectively. This highlights the scale of the work performed by welfare organisations in caring for and rehoming unwanted cats and dogs annually and emphasises the urgent need to address concerns over the considerable number of these animals. This study has also produced useful baseline data, which will be essential for monitoring population changes over time.     

The Perceptions of Dog Intelligence and Cognitive Skills (PoDIaCS) Survey

Dog cognition research is expanding, but few studies have examined people's perceptions of specific cognitive abilities in dogs. The aim of this study was to explore owner perceptions of dog cognitive abilities across different cognitive domains and to determine whether these were associated with the dog–owner relationship. We developed an online questionnaire and analyzed the results from 565 dog owners. Dog owners generally indicated the belief that dogs are socially intelligent and possess the capacity to learn social and general cognitive skills. One quarter of dog owners agreed or strongly agreed that dogs were smarter than most people, and 45.7% indicated the belief that a dog's mental ability is equal to “3-5 year old human children.” Perceived emotional owner–dog closeness correlated with all cognition ratings. A better understanding of dog cognitive abilities may help owners interpret dog behavior more appropriately, which may lead to a reduction in the number of dogs relinquished to shelters because of behavioral problems.     

Cause,Setting and Ownership Analysis of Dog Bites in Bay County,Florida from 2009 to 2010

Emergency room and hospital discharge data have been used to describe the risk factors and public health impact of dog bites. These data sets are based on financial charges for severe bites and underestimates dog bite burdens within communities. This study expands both the source of information and risk factor data collected to provide demographic analysis of dog bite injury risk factors reported in Bay County, Florida in 2009–2010. Extended data for dog bites reported by various sources from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010 were collected by Florida Department of Health in Bay County. Data collected included bite victim's age and gender, primary reported cause of bite, setting, dog's restraint status and relationship between the victim and the dog. A total of 799 bites were reported. Most bites (55%) were reported first by healthcare practitioners, particularly bites involving children <6 years. Bites involving unfamiliar dogs and dogs off the owner's property were more likely to be reported by other sources. Boys aged 6–14 years accounted for 2.24 times more bites than same‐aged females (P < 0.001) and had the highest incidence with 424 bites per 100 000 persons per year. Persons 6 years or older were 3.6 times more likely to be bitten by an unfamiliar dog. Inappropriate behaviour management was the most common cause of bites (26%), followed by protective behaviour (24%). Bites of unknown cause were 2.5 times more likely in children <6 years. Separating dog fights was the most common cause of bites for persons 15 years or older (24%); females were significantly more likely to be bit than males (P = 0.01). Bites by unrestrained dogs off the owner's property (32% of all bites) most commonly involved males. Estimates based solely on healthcare discharge data significantly underestimate dog bite burden within a community. Characterizing these risks by age group or gender provides an opportunity to implement targeted interventions to prevent dog bites.     

Factors affecting the success of rehoming dogs in the UK during 2005

In the UK, welfare organisations care for several thousand dogs each year. The successful rehoming of these dogs is a difficult process resulting in some of them being returned to rehoming centres. There have been very few studies examining the underlying mechanisms in the UK. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine those factors which affect the success of rehoming dogs.A prospective cohort study was conducted using a sample of 5750 dogs rehomed by Dogs Trust, a UK based dog welfare charity, during 2005. Dogs were followed up for a period of 6 months after adoption to determine if these dogs were still in their placement home. There was a 78% response rate to the follow-up postal questionnaires sent to the new owners, giving information on 4500 owners. Fourteen percent of adoptions failed. The results showed that behavioural problems are an important factor in the success of adoption such that if dogs had shown aggression towards people and the owners had not sought advice, they had 11.1 times the odds (95% CI: 6.6, 18.8) of being returned compared to those dogs without behavioural problems. Attending training classes significantly decreased the chance that the adoption would be unsuccessful (OR 0.3, 95% CI: 0.2, 0.4). It was shown that those owners who found that the effort and work involved in looking after their dog to be more than they had expected, had 9.9 (95% CI: 4.1, 24.6) times the odds of returning their dog than those who found the effort required to be less than they had expected.The results of this study show that there are many factors involved in a successful adoption and it is important that the new owners are informed of what to expect are encouraged to attend training classes and are prepared to work at any behavioural problems that their dog may have.     

Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in fed and fasted horses

Britzi, M., Gross, M., Lavy, E., Soback, S., Steinman, A. Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in fed and fasted horses. J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap. 33 , 511–514. Metronidazole (1‐[2‐hydroxyethyl]‐2‐methyl‐5‐nitroimidazole) is a bactericidal antimicrobial agent used for treatment of infectious diseases caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. Pharmacokinetics of metronidazole following its administration to horses was previously described ( Sweeney et al., 1986 ; Baggot et al., 1988 ; Specht et al., 1992 ; Steinman et al., 2000 ). The bioavailability (F) was 85% (ranging from 57% to 105%) and the time to reach maximum serum concentration (t_max) was 1–2 h after oral dose at 25 mg/kg body weight ( Sweeney et al., 1986 ). Baggot et al. (1988) found that F was 74.5% (ranging from 58.4% to 91.5%) and t_max was 1.5 h after oral dose at 20 mg/kg body weight. Specht et al. (1992) reported that F was 97% (ranging from 79% to 111%) and t_max was 40 min after oral dose at 15 mg/kg body weight. In an earlier study by our group F was 74% and t_max was 65 min after oral dose at 20 mg/kg body weight ( Steinman et al., 2000 ). These individual variations in F might be partially explained by the effect of feed, among other factors, mainly on metronidazole absorption. Interactions between food and drugs may reduce or increase the drug effect. The majority of clinically relevant food–drug interactions are caused by food‐induced changes on the bioavailability of the drug ( Schmidt & Dalhoff, 2002 ). In dogs, absorption of metronidazole is enhanced when given with food, but delayed in humans ( Plumb, 1995 ). Although, metronidazole is used commonly to treat various clinical conditions in horses with relatively little adverse effects ( Sweeney et al., 1991 ), narrow margin of safety was suggested because histological evidence of peripheral neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity were noted in horses treated with doses as low as 30 mg/kg body weight every 12 h orally for 30 days ( White et al., 1996 ). For drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, even small changes in dose–response effects can have significant consequences ( Schmidt & Dalhoff, 2002 ).     

Despite high‐risk exposures,no evidence of zoonotic transmission during a canine outbreak of leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis that affects many mammals, including humans and dogs; dogs can transmit the bacteria to humans, but the frequency of transmission and highest risk exposures are poorly understood. During 2016–2017, the Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Arizona Department of Health Services and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigated the zoonotic potential of a canine leptospirosis outbreak in the Phoenix metro area. We identified symptomatic persons exposed to canine leptospirosis cases by conducting active and passive surveillance. We tested dog owners (n = 9) and animal care providers (n = 109) for serological evidence of Leptospira spp. infection (via the microscopic agglutination test [MAT]) and interviewed these persons about their specific exposures to canine cases and general exposures to canine blood and urine. Through surveillance, seven symptomatic persons were identified; six were tested and all were negative by MAT, and of these six, four persons were negative by PCR (two did not have PCR testing). All serosurvey participants (n = 118) were also seronegative. Among animal care providers, bare skin contact with urine/blood from a canine case was reported by 23.2%; two persons reported dog urine splashing in their face. Veterinary technicians were more likely to have bare skin contact with blood from a canine case compared to veterinarians and boarding facility staff (p < 0.001). Infection control practices were inconsistent; when working with specimens from a canine leptospirosis case, 44.6% of participants reported always wearing gloves when working with urine (i.e., collecting specimens), and 54.5% always wore gloves when working with blood. Veterinary technicians were also most likely to engage in all activities involving potential urine/blood contact, such as conducting laboratory tests (p < 0.01). We therefore recommend that veterinary technicians specifically receive targeted education about infection control practices. Our results suggest that dog‐to‐human transmission of leptospirosis is uncommon.     

Breeding implications resulting from classification of patellae luxation in dogs

Patellar luxation (PL) is one of the major hereditary orthopaedic abnormalities observed in a variety of dog breeds. When the patellae move sideways out of the trochlear groove, this is called PL. The PL score varies between dogs from normal to very severe. Reducing the prevalence of PL by breeding could prevent surgery, thereby improve welfare. Orthopaedic specialists differentiate between normal and loose patellae, where the patellae can be moved to the edge of the trochlear groove, considering scoring loose patellae as normal in the future. Loose patellae are considered acceptable for breeding so far by the breeding organization. The aim of this study was to analyse the genetic background of PL to decide on the importance of loose patellae when breeding for healthy dogs. Data are available from two dog breeds, that is Flat‐coated Retrievers (n = 3808) and Kooiker dogs (n = 794), with a total of 4602 dogs. Results show that loose patellae indicate that dogs are genetically more susceptible to develop PL because family members of the dogs with loose patellae showed more severe PL. In addition, the estimated breeding values for dogs with loose patellae indicate that breeding values of dogs with loose patellae were worse than breeding values obtained for dogs with a normal score. Given these results, it is advised to orthopaedic specialists to continue to score loose patellae as a separate class and to dog breeders to minimize the use of dogs in breeding with a genetically higher susceptibility for PL.     

Free‐Roaming Dogs in Nepal: Demographics,Health and Public Knowledge,Attitudes and Practices

In Nepal, most dogs are free to roam and may transmit diseases to humans and animals. These dogs often suffer from malnutrition and lack basic health care. Minimal information is available about their demographics and about public attitudes concerning dogs and diseases. We carried out a study in Chitwan District (central Nepal), to collect baseline data on free‐roaming owned dog demographics, assess knowledge, attitudes and practices of dog owners concerning dogs and rabies, evaluate rabies vaccination coverage and anthelmintic treatment of dogs, measure dogs' response to rabies vaccination and assess dog health through body condition scores and parasites. We conducted household interviews with owners of free‐roaming female dogs (n = 60) and administered dogs with rabies vaccination and anthelmintics. Dog owners regularly fed free‐roaming dogs but provided minimal health care; 42% of respondents did not claim ownership of the dog for which they provided care. We collected skin, faecal and blood samples for parasite identification and for measuring rabies virus‐specific antibodies. Ninety‐two per cent of dog owners were aware of the routes of rabies virus transmission, but only 35% described the correct post‐exposure prophylaxis (PEP) following a dog bite. Twenty‐seven per cent of the dogs had measurable rabies virus‐specific antibody titres and 14% had received anthelmintics in the previous year. Following rabies vaccination, 97% of dogs maintained an adequate antibody titre for ≥6 months. Most dogs appeared healthy, although haemoprotozoans, endoparasites and ectoparasites were identified in 12%, 73% and 40% of the dogs, respectively. Poor skin condition and parasite load were associated. Seventy‐four per cent of the females had litters in 1 year (mean litter size = 4.5). Births occurred between September and February; we estimated 60% mortality in puppies. We concluded that vaccination coverage, PEP awareness and anthelmintic treatment should be emphasized in educational programmes focussed on animal welfare, veterinary and public health.     

Fatal dog attacks in Canada, 1990-2007

In Canada, public debates on dog attacks are dominated by studies from the United States. An electronic search of media reports in the Canadian Newsstand database, for the years 1990 to 2007, identified 28 fatalities from dog-bite injuries. Predominant factors in this case series were owned, known dogs; residential location; children's unsupervised access to area with dogs; and rural/remote areas, including aboriginal reserves in the prairies. A higher proportion of sled dogs and, possibly, mixed-breed dogs in Canada than in the United States caused fatalities, as did multiple dogs rather than single dogs. Free-roaming dog packs, reported only from rural communities, caused most on-reserve fatalities. Future studies are needed to assess if this rural/urban divide is observed in nonfatal attacks and if the breeds that bite in Canada are different from the breeds that killed. Breed representation in this paper and, perhaps, multiple-dog overrepresentation should be understood in the context of the overall Canadian dog population.     

The dog welfare directive of 2 May 2001

As of 1 September, 2001 existing legislation regulating outdoor dog husbandry is replaced by the domestic dog welfare directive of 2 May, 2001. The new directive applies to details of housing and breeding of dogs kept indoors and as domestic companions. Thus, minimum requirements for housing, care and feeding now apply to the great majority of private dog owners. However these requirements do not apply to animals in transit, in individual veterinary treatment or to those used for scientific experimentation whose goals justify deviations from these standards. Additional regulations apply to dog breeding and showing. Puppies may not be separated from their mother and litter before eight weeks of age. "Prohibition of breeding for aggressiveness" cited in Paragraph 11b of the animal welfare law is defined, and includes various breeds and hybrids. The directive includes an index for the care and treatment of dogs by commercial breeders. After a transitional period no dogs which have been subjected to amputations at the expense of the animal's welfare in order to achieve specific features may be shown publicly. The author provides critical commentary on the regulations of the domestic dog welfare directive and points out areas which will continue to be of concern.     

Efficiency of working dogs undergoing a new Human Familiarization and Training Program

The study of human-dog interaction has increased over the past several years. It has been demonstrated that dogs can use a number of human social cues to successfully accomplish a task, and that they do so better than apes. Many authors agree that these abilities are a result of 10,000 years of domestication by humans. Domestication may have genetically predisposed dogs to accurately recognize human communication signals. However, only a few authors have studied the performance of working dogs, implying recognition of human communication signals. Haverbeke et al. (2008) found that military working dogs do not always perform as they are expected to. To investigate this finding, we studied the performance of obedience and protection work exercises between 2 groups of dog-handler teams: a control group (CG), trained using the current training method used by the Belgian Defense, and an experimental group (EG) that underwent a new human familiarization and training program. During obedience and protection work exercises, EG teams obtained better results than CG teams and EG dogs exhibited a higher body posture than CG dogs. The results suggest that even if dogs are genetically predisposed toward the recognition of human communication signals, this aptitude alone does not explain the dogs' performance and their interactions with humans in this study. Regular training combined with positive dog-handler interaction is also required to increase the dog-handler (DH) team's performances.     

Perception of dogs’ stress by their owners

Questionnaires potentially have a broad applicability in measuring stress levels in dogs, as owners know their dogs’ behavior and personality better than anyone else. The aim of this research was to evaluate how owners perceive stress in their dogs through understanding of displayed behaviors.The survey was carried out using 1,190 questionnaires completed by dog owners. More than half of respondents were able to correctly identify stress as a short- or long-term alteration of the psychophysical equilibrium that can develop into illness. This ability was higher with higher educational levels. The behavioral indicators of stress most frequently identified by owners were trembling and whining, followed by aggressiveness, excessive barking, and panting. More subtle behaviors such as looking elsewhere, turning head, yawning, and nose licking were more rarely reported, suggesting that few owners are able to correctly interpret and intervene in early stages of stress. The vast majority of respondents indicated that dogs were stressed seldom or only in specific situations. Men generally considered their dogs as experiencing low stress more often than did women, whereas women considered their dogs as being moderately stressed more often than did men.An owner’s ability to recognize behavioral signs of stress is important, as it enables the owner to help the animal to avoid welfare problems, such as stressful situations, and favors a rapid recovery of psychophysical homeostasis by interrupting the progression to overstress and distress. The results show that some owners can help in protecting the welfare of their dogs, but that many owners would benefit from educational efforts to improve their ability to interpret their dogs’ behavior.     

Exaggerated breed characteristics in dogs

Dutch dog owners seem to be aware of bad dog breeding practices with regard to exaggerated breed characteristics that are detrimental to the dog's welfare. Yet they do not always look for these features when buying a dog. Most dog owners think that veterinarians could have an important role in preventing these exaggerated physical traits, by providing information about these traits and taking action in their capacity as veterinarian. Articles 36 and 55 of the Dutch GWWD (animal health and welfare law) provide opportunities to act against the breeding of dogs with exaggerated genetic traits.     

Dogs on livestock farms: A cross‐sectional study investigating potential roles in zoonotic pathogen transmission

Dogs are often present on livestock farms, where they serve important management and companion roles, yet may be involved in zoonotic pathogen transmission. Numerous factors can potentially alter the risk of exposure to zoonotic pathogens, such as the dog's access to livestock, close dog–human contact and an increasing immunocompromised human population. The objective of this study was to quantify and qualify dog ownership among livestock owners, their dog husbandry and biosecurity practices, the dogs’ access to livestock and potential risks for zoonotic pathogen transmission. A questionnaire was developed and mailed to 2,000 presumed Ohio livestock owners. Data were collected on demographics, dog husbandry practices, attitudes surrounding zoonotic diseases and attachment to and preventive veterinary care for the dogs. There were 446 responders who met the study inclusion criteria as an Ohio livestock farm owner, with 297 (67%) also owning dogs. Approximately 52% of dog‐owning households included at least one individual at higher disease risk (i.e., <5 years, ≥65 years, diagnosed with an immunocompromising condition). Most respondents had little/no concern for disease transmission from livestock to dogs (90%), from dogs to livestock (87%) and from dogs to people (94%). Dogs were allowed access to livestock by 70% of respondents and nearly all (96%; 198) indicated at least one higher risk dog–livestock management practice. In addition, many reported never leashing or fencing their dog (61%) and rarely to never picking up dog faeces (76%). Households with higher risk members reported similar husbandry, biosecurity and concern levels as households without those members (all p > .05). Numerous opportunities for zoonotic pathogen transmission and low level of zoonotic disease concern suggest a need for improved education and outreach for the livestock dog‐owning community, particularly for higher risk households.     

The relationships between motor lateralization,salivary cortisol concentrations and behavior in dogs

The degree of lateralization (LI) indicates both the direction and strength of a paw preference. Here, a positive value is indicative of a right paw bias, and a negative value of a left paw bias. Higher numbers on the positive side of the scale and lower numbers on the negative side of the scale indicate a greater strength of that lateralization. The strength of motor lateralization (|LI|) is the absolute value of the LI. The use of absolute value removes directionality (i.e., does not indicate left or right paw bias) and instead indicates only the strength of the paw preference. Both LI and |LI| have been associated with behavioral differences in a range of species. The assessment of motor lateralization in the dog can be conducted by observing the paw used to perform motor tasks.Elevated cortisol concentrations have been associated with fearfulness in many species. Additionally, fearfulness and boldness can be assessed in response to so-called temperament tests. Consequently, in this study we examine the relationship between lateralization, temperament test results, and cortisol concentrations in 43 potential guide dogs, of which 38 were Labrador retrievers and 5 were golden retrievers.Over a 14-month period, the current study assessed motor lateralization and salivary cortisol concentrations 3 times (approximately 6 months of age, 14 months of age, and after the dogs' performance in the guide dog program had been determined) and behavior twice (approximately 6 and 14 months of age).This study is the first to examine the relationship between behavior, lateralization, and cortisol concentrations in dogs. It implemented an objective and quantifiable assessment of behavior that may be of use to a variety of dog-focused stakeholders.Findings show that during the Juvenile testing period (6 months of age), dogs with higher cortisol concentrations were typically less able to rest when exposed to the unfamiliar testing room. Results from both Juvenile and Adult Test (14 months of age) periods showed that a greater |LI| and LI were associated with more confident and relaxed behavior when dogs were exposed to novel stimuli and unfamiliar environments.Significant elevations of cortisol concentrations were found at the completion of guide dog training when compared with results from the 2 prior test periods. This finding may reflect maturation or the effect of the prolonged kenneling which occurred during this period.     

Meta‐Analyses of Factors Associated with Leptospirosis in Domestic Dogs

Factors related with leptospirosis in domestic dogs have been reported worldwide. The aims of this study were to identify factors associated with this disease described in different observational studies and to combine the coinciding factors in at least four studies using meta‐analyses, to obtain a pooled odds ratio (OR) as measure of infection risk. A literature search was performed in electronic databases, electronic databases of specific journals and search engines to find studies published in English, Spanish and Portuguese available from January 1960 to January 2015. Two hundred and eighteen factors were identified in 31 publications including cross‐sectional and case–control studies. Finally, independent meta‐analyses were performed with six different variables, which included between 4 and 8 articles. The pooled OR indicated that the variables ‘mixed‐breed dogs’, ‘flooding occurrence in the habitat of the dog’ and ‘working dogs’ were risk factors for leptospirosis, while ‘being a dog less than 1 year old’ was a protective factor; however, all these associations were not statistically significant. Otherwise, the variables ‘male dog’ and ‘urban dog’ were statistically significant risk factors for infection. This study highlights the need for more formal studies on the epidemiology of canine leptospirosis. Nevertheless, the study revealed that some risk factors for infection coincided in different observational studies. These factors could be considered to raise suspicion about the disease, especially when there is a history of exposure to the bacteria.