Why model landscapes at the level of households and fields?

Sustainable resource management relies upon many disciplines and deals with complex interactions at the landscape scale. Many of the issues at the landscape scale arise from decisions taken at the household level and affect land use in fields and in small patches of forest. Spatially-explicit modelling of these units is desirable because it enables rigorous testing of model predictions, and thus of underlying propositions. The greatest insights may be obtained by participatory modelling of these processes as we understand them. Despite this, few models simulate dynamics at the household and field level. FLORES, the Forest Land Oriented Resource Envisioning System, is a simulation system that attempts to bring these elements together into a coherent package to assist stakeholders to explore options and their implications. The hallmark of FLORES is explicit modelling of the interrelationship between actors and land parcels within a spatial framework. FLORES demonstrates the feasibility and possible benefits of modelling at this scale. Thanks are due to Thomas Enters, Mandy Haggith, Robert Muetzelfeldt, John Palmer, Ravi Prabhu and Fergus Sinclair for their support and inspiration, and to the many participants of the Bukittinggi workshop for helping to bring FLORES to ‘life’.     

Unlocking complexity: The importance of idealisation in simulation modelling

Idealisation is the process of finding simple representations of the real-world whilst conceptualising a model. There are three ways to limit complication in a model of a complex real-world: byfocussing the scope of the modelling process onto a clearly defined issue; byidealising elements of the real-world during model conceptualisation; and bysimplifying the implemented simulation program. Careful idealisation has the greatest potential for increasing model tractability whilst generating insights during the model design process. The Forest Land Oriented Resource Envisioning System (FLORES) project deals with social forest landscapes which are highly complex. Benefits of idealisation are demonstrated using six examples from this modelling work. These examples encompass issues dealing with land tenure, forest management, economic values, social diversity, communication and collaboration. Each example illustrates a different method to achieve an idealisation which yields insights relevant for policy players. A number of lessons about idealisation are also identified: (1) sometimes it is only possible to recognise what is key by omitting it; (2) an effective idealisation is not just achieved by leaving things out, or adding them back in; it can also be achieved by restructuring the representation; (3) it is important challenge the use of different units where consistency is possible; (4) it is easier to keep a simple model simple, than to make simple modifications to a large model. Similarly, it is easier to generate insights with a simple concept for a sub-model than with a simple modification to an existing model; and (5) even the most useful idealisations may have a limited shelf-life. Thanks to Bill Ritchie, Carol Colfer, Bruce Campbell, Herry Purnomo, Wavell Standa-Gunda, Richard Dudley and Jerry Vanclay for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper, and to all the other Florists for engaging in debate about this modelling experience. We are grateful to the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the European Community for financial support of this project.     

The challenges of effective model scoping: A FLORES case study from the mafungautsi forest margins,Zimbabwe

This paper explores the challenge of defining the scope of a systems model, emphasising three aspects: boundary, granularity and conceptual scope. The significance of these is illustrated by reference to a model of land-use decisions made in villages bordering on the Mafungautsi forest in Zimbabwe. The purpose of this model was to help policy players (Forestry Commission staff, non-governmental organisations, researchers and local people) to understand the impact of policy interventions on local people’s livelihoods. Scoping decisions that were made in building the Mafungautsi model were deliberately liberal, to encompass the interests of all participants in the modelling process. These decisions now present a range of serious challenges: the difficulty of model calibration, the computational expense of running simulations, and the difficulty for new users to understand the model. Facilitators of modelling teams need to consider the serious implications of giving everyone what they want and including all participants’ ideas in a model. In the long run, it may be better to be tough and reject many suggestions at the outset. The former approach is unlikely to lead to a tractable model, while the latter may ultimately offer greater satisfaction for all. We are grateful to the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the European Community for financial support of this project. Thanks also to all of the ACM team who have contributed ideas on the process and content of the modelling work and who make it fun to undertake collaborative research. Thanks also to the participants in the Zimbabwe FLAC workshops for their input into the specification of the Mafungautsi model. Finally thanks to Robert Muetzelfeldt, Jasper Taylor, Jonathan Massheder, Fergus Sinclair and Jerry Vanclay for helping us to ride on the FLORES bandwagon.     

Participatory modelling to enhance social learning,collective action and mobilization among users of the mafungautsi forest,Zimbabwe

Participatory modelling can be a useful process to encourage critical examination of livelihood options and foster sustainable natural resource use through enhanced social learning, collective action and mobilization. The broom-grass group in the Mafungautsi Forest Reserve serves as a case study of the process and outcomes of such participatory modelling. Innovative group facilitation methods enhanced participation in the modelling process. The modelling process complements broader efforts to achieve higher levels of adaptive collaborative management. This work was conducted as part of the Adaptive Co-Management project of CIFOR, the Center for International Forestry Research. We are grateful to the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the European Community for financial support of this project.     

ZimFlores: A model to advise co-management of the mafungautsi forest in Zimbabwe

ZimFlores (version 4) is the outcome of a participatory modelling process and seeks to provide a shared factual basis for exploring land-use options for the communal lands surrounding the Mafungautsi forest. The ZimFlores experience underscores the importance of a sharing a common problem and a common location in which all participants have an interest. Participatory modelling has proved an effective way to consolidate a diverse body of knowledge and make it accessible. Results demonstrate the importance of model outputs that are diagnostic, and which offer insights into the issues under consideration. Many people contributed in many ways to help realize ZimFlores. Some of the people who contributed include Elias Ayuk, Ivan Bond, Ephraim Chabayanzara, Muyeye Chambwera, Vijay Datadin, Wil de Jong, Peter Frost, James Gambiza, Jode Garbe, Peter Gondo, Emmanuel Guveya, Chiedza Gwata, John Hansell, Gideon Kamumvuri, Godwin Kowero, Dominic Kwesha, Chris Legg, Tim Lynam, Hilton Madevu, Simba Mandota, Everisto Mapedza, Frank Matose, Gutura Matoso, Chipo Mlambo, John Mudekwe, Maxwell Mukwekwerere, Dorcas Mungwari, Tendayi Mutimukuru, Mkhululi Ngwenya, Richard Nyirenda, Bill Ritchie, Lizwelabo Sibanda, Manasa Sibanda, Fergus Sinclair, Jivas Sithutha, Jasper Taylor, Michael Thomas, Zivanai Tsvuura and Steve Twomlow. We are grateful to the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the European Community for financial support of this project.     

Voicing interests and concerns: challenges for forest research

Forest research has to change in response to the increased interest of society in the management of forest land. The president and the vice president of IUFRO, the Assistant Director-General for Forestry in the FAO and the Past Director-General of CIFOR discuss key issues. IUFRO should become a clearing house for forest research and expertise. Research has to recognize that the culture of forestry has become a culture of conflict. More interdisciplinary and policy research should be added to the strong bio-physical sciences in forestry. We need science to exploit the comparative advantages of local and larger-scale forest management and we need science to bridge the gaps between the traditional and modern pools of knowledge and experience.     

免渡河林业局森林资源现状及发展分析

文章阐述了免渡河林业局自1996年开展森林资源二类调查以来森林资源的变化情况,依据森林资源状况,提出森林资源可持续经营的对策。     

Collaborative modelling to support forest management: Qualitative systems analysis at Lumut Mountain,Indonesia

Complex ecological and social processes in tropical forests imply that observations on any single element of the system do not provide an adequate basis for sound forest management. A collaborative modelling process engaging all relevant stakeholders led to a shared understanding of how to manage forests around Lumut Mountain, Pasir District, East Kalimantan. The model was developed by identifying forest management objectives, building a conceptual model using a causal loop diagram, and defining performance indicators. The model was then used to explore future scenarios to improve the well-being of local stakeholders while maintaining forest quality. Finally, roles needed to implement the chosen scenarios were defined and assigned to individual participants. This qualitative modelling process was found to be an effective way to assist the development of a collaborative action plan. The authors wish to acknowledge that this paper has been produced with financial support from Department for International Development of UK, the Asian Development Bank under RETA Grant 5812 and CIFOR. The views expressed contained herein are solely of the authors and do not necessarily reflect official views of the donors or of CIFOR. The authors would like to thank Richard Dudley and Bruce Campbell for their inputs to the paper.     

Multi-agent simulation of alternative scenarios of collaborative forest management

International calls for sustainable development advocate that forest management should be carried out in a multi-stakeholder environment. The importance of community participation is acknowledged in theIndonesian Act No. 41 on Forestry (1999). However, it is not clear how to achieve this in areas already allocated to a concession holder. Current regulations offer little flexibility for concessionaires to develop site-specific management, or to involve local communities in forest management. The research reported here examines the application of simulation techniques to explore scenarios of sustainable forest management addressing those limitations. Several scenarios have been developed using multi-agent simulation to examine social and biophysical issues. Of the four scenarios examined in this study, collaborative forest management involving both the concessionaire and the local community appears to offer the most promising pathway toward sustainability. The authors wish to acknowledge that this paper has been produced with financial support from Department for International Development of the UK, and the Asian Development Bank under RETA Grant 5812 and CIFOR. The views expressed here are those of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the donors or of CIFOR. The authors also thank Bruce Campbell for his inputs to the paper.     

Demand for non-timber forest products: Surveys of urban consumers and sellers in Switzerland

In recent years, worldwide socioeconomic, ecological, and cultural changes have led to a paradigm shift in forestry and forest management. Some years ago, most forest enterprises exclusively focused on wood production, whereas today, forest management is expected to be multifunctional and economically as well as socially and ecologically sustainable [Harrison, S., Herbohn, J., Niskanen, A., 2002. Non-industrial, smallholder, small-scale and family forestry: what's in a name? Small-scale Forest Economics. Management and Policy 1 (1), 1–11; Schmithuesen, F., 2004. Forest policy developments in changing societies — political trends and challenges to research. Towards the sustainable use of Europe's forests: Forest ecosystems and landscape research: Joensuu: European Forest Institute, Proc., vol. 49, pp. 87–99]. In this context, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as forest honey, mushrooms, or berries could gain importance as an additional source of income for the forestry sector. To assess the market potential of NTFPs in Switzerland, two corresponding surveys were conducted. A consumer survey (N = 897) conducted in six cities in Switzerland investigated the purchase of Swiss NTFPs, consumer preferences, and demand potentials. An additional survey of sellers of NTFPs (N = 105) looked at these aspects from a complementary perspective. The results showed that there is a high esteem and considerable demand potential for such products among urban consumers. Food products were mentioned most frequently. Both consumers and sellers considered quality and environmental friendliness the most important attributes of NTFPs. Structural and organizational innovations and considerable marketing efforts and sales promotion would be required to expand the market for Swiss NTFP, however. Our results indicate that certification of the products' origin, environmental performance, and quality could support such efforts and that recreational and ecological forest services have a synergetic potential for the marketing of NTFPs.     

The small-scale forestry group 1986–2006: an overview on the group activities during the last 20 years

This paper documents the history of the first 20 years of the Small-scale Forestry Group of the International Union of forest Research Organisations (IUFRO). The origins of the Small-scale Forestry Group can be traced back to the ‘Five Year Report 1982–1986, IUFRO Division 3 Forest Operations and Techniques’ where ‘Division 3 took the initiative to intensify research in the area of Small-scale Forestry by promoting a new project group P 3.04 ...’. In 1986 this group was founded during the IUFRO World Congress in Ljubljana. The emergence of the Small-scale Forestry Group reflects the expanding interest in small-scale forestry as a field of study and its increasing social and economic importance. This paper describes and critically assesses the how the Group has developed during the last 20 years, and reviews the activities which have been undertaken, and makes some forecasts about the future of the Group. The key impression is that the Group has been remarkably active, and has achieved much more than could have been predicted at the time it was formed.     

Comparative virulence of blue-stain fungi isolated from Japanese red pine

 We made inoculations to determine the comparative virulence of blue-stain fungi isolated from Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora Sieb. & Zucc.). Based on the symptoms caused by each fungus, the most virulent fungus was Leptographium wingfieldii. Also, Ophiostoma minus was relatively virulent while lesions induced by some species did not differ from those in the control treatment. Based on the results, we concluded that the pathogenicity of the blue-stain fungi varied widely, and thus their impact on the host most likely varies too. Received: June 7, 2002 / Accepted: October 4, 2002 Present address: JST Domestic Research Fellow, Forest Pathology Laboratory, Tohoku Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, 92-25 Nabeyashiki, Shimo-Kuriyagawa, Morioka 020-0123, Japan Tel +81-19-648-3961; Fax +81-19-641-6747 e-mail: H_masu@hotmail.com Acknowledgments We thank Drs. Ohtaka and Usuki, Plant Pathology and Mycology Laboratory, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba, for technical assistance. Contribution No. 174, Plant Pathology and Mycology Laboratory, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba. Correspondence to:H. Masuya     

分类经营是热带林业可持续发展的重要途径

本文提出了“分类经营是热带林业可持续发展的重要途径”这一论断,并通过中国林业发展的“分类经营”理论,及在这一理论指导下实施的ＩＴＴＯ中国海南热带林业发展示范项目的中期实验结果,给予了实证分析。文章指出,热带森林的保护与利用,是一个包括技术、经济、社会,甚至政治、文化、伦理的因素在内的综合性问题,必须用“系统论”的观点从更大的背景下考虑解决。而以往的教训是局限于林业、局限于技术。     

林业结构调整效果初步分析

对《中国林业文摘》1991-2001每年第1期共6344个有关文献条目分析结果可见，林业结构调整6年来巳初见成效：经济效益收益期短、市场大量急需、生态效益高的林种、树种和产品都有较快和不同程度的发展，其所占比例也不同程度提高，而且今后一段时间内还将保持这种趋势。     

林业科研成果推广障碍的探讨

作者参加了1994年10月24日-28日由国际林联(IUFRO)、亚太地区林业研究支持计划(FORSPA)、国际林业研究中心(CIFOR)和联合国粮农组织亚大地区办事处(FAO/RAPA)共同举办的林业科研成果推广障碍研讨会。研讨会共有3个目标:(1)识别和分析影响林业研究过程和林业科研成果应用障碍的种类;(2)评价当前确定研究重, 人的战略以及研究的有用性和实用性;(3)形成克服不同水平障碍的战略框架。作者在大会提交的论文和讨论的基础上撰写此文, 旨在介绍这次会议取得的进展, 以促进我国林业科研成果的推广。     

CamFlores: A FLORES-type model for the humid forest margin in Cameroon

A FLORES-type model in the Simile modelling environment is being developed for three villages in the Humid Forest Benchmark area of southern Cameroon. The modelling project seeks to investigate the effects of introduction of new crop varieties and improved farming systems on the long-term maintenance of stable mosaics of forest and agriculture, within the context of the international Alternatives to Slash and Burn programme. Biophysical data have been collated, and socio-econnomic and tenure data have been acquired in spatially-explicit ways. Maps of land-cover at village and benchmark scale are being prepared from detailed and semi-detailed satellite imagery, using a nested legend system that allows linking of maps at different scales. These data enable the initial construction and parameterisation of the model, and will permit the extrapolation of the results of modelling from the villages to the benchmark, and ultimately to the whole of the Congo Basin humid forests. The prototype version of the model involves 10 households and about 500 land patches, and includes the three agricultural systems dominant in the southern more forested portion of the Benchmark (mixed food-fallow systems, forest melon fields, cocoa plantations) with no rental, sale or other transfer of land. Decision-making at the household level is essentially modelled deterministically, and labour productivity is assumed to be constant between households. This model is now complete, and once it has been adjusted and suitably parameterised, it will be applied to real data from the three test villages. This will require the addition of new farming systems, the introduction of modes of permanent or temporary transfer of land, and modification of the decision model to render it more realistic. The work described in this paper is a part of a project funded by the European Union through ICRAF and hosted at the IITA Humid Forest Ecoregional Centre, Cameroon. The assistance of Valentina Robiglio (JPO GIS specialist), especially in preparation of land-cover maps and in collection of socio-economic data, is gratefully acknowledged, as is the work of IITA ASB village facilitators in collection of field data. The cooperation of IITA, IRAD, CIFOR and ICRAF scientists in providing data for the model and periodically reviewing progress with the modelling process was essential to the progress achieved thus far.     

云南省森林资源资产评估现状、存在问题及建议

在国家林业局和财政部共同发布了《森林资源资产评估管理暂行规定》（财企[2006]529号）后,云南省在深入推进集体林权制度配套改革过程中,积极推进林权社会化服务工作,在森林资源资产评估方面进行了诸多探索研究,建立了“量价分离”的评估模式。本文通过对云南省森林资源资产评估现状和存在问题的分析,提出进一步推进森林资源资产评估工作的建议。     

The ecological sustainability of tropical forest management: evaluation of the national forest management standards of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, with emphasis on the need for adaptive management

From a conceptual point of view, national forest management standards in Latin American countries have progressed significantly in recent years. Examples include the Costa Rican Standards and Procedures for Sustainable Forest Management and Certification, developed by the National Commission for Forest Certification and in Nicaragua, the National Institute of Forestry proposal of principles, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. In line with general approaches worldwide, these national standards primarily focus on the fulfillment of sound forest practice. There is comparatively little emphasis on the assessment of management outcomes or changes in key components of the eco- and social-systems that result from management impacts. Essentially, there is little emphasis on adaptive management, though arguments that management cannot be sustainable if it is not adaptive are persuasive. This study sought to contribute to the development of standards that include elements for adaptive management that define, communicate and evaluate sustainable forest management in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Elements from the national standards and the CIFOR generic C&I template (predominantly focused on forest management outcomes) were used as a starting point. The basic research process consisted of three phases of evaluation (in-office, desk and field). The evaluations were carried out by multidisciplinary, international groups of experts in forest ecology, management and policy. This study demonstrated the value of forums and workshops that facilitate exchange between forest scientists and policymakers; the innovation and application of a practical, applicable and scientifically based methodology for developing national level C&I; and acceptance of this methodology by key players in the fields of forest management and policy. These experiences and the resulting proposals of C&I for the evaluation of ecologically sustainable forest management are expected to be used as points of reference for future development of forest policy in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, and to contribute to the overall understanding of C&I development processes in the region.