The use and value of multiple methods to capture the diversity of endogenous agroforestry knowledge: an example from Rwanda

To understand endogenous agroforestry knowledge and the processes behind the generation of such knowledge, multiple methods are needed. In this paper, the identification and characterization of farmer agroforestry experts will illustrate the necessity of multiple methods. Nonformal, participatory methods were employed to identify the research subjects (farmer agroforestry experts) and to gain insights into the emic conception and understanding of ‘knowledge’ and ‘agroforestry’. An adaptation of the wealth ranking game was used to determine (1) the research subjects using locally defined criteria of ‘being knowledgeable about agroforestry’, and (2) how this knowledge is distributed within a community. Additional information, approaching the subject from an etic perspective, was gathered using formal surveys to collect socioeconomic data and to make an inventory of all trees and tree species. Study results indicate that exclusive reliance on either emic or etic perspectives would not have yielded satisfactory results, as there is a differentiation in agroforestry knowledge and agroforestry systems between different groups of farmers. It is, therefore, recommended that future studies of endogenous knowledge systems combine qualitative and quantitative, participatory and formal data collection methods as they provide complementary and supplementary perspectives on a complex reality.     

The scope and potential of tree legumes in agroforestry

Tree legumes play a vital role in many agroforestry systems currently in use throughout the world. Because of their multipurpose nature they can be used to provide high quality fodder for livestock, nutrient rich mulch for crops, fuelwood and timber, microenvironment amelioration, ecosystem stability, and human food.Tree legumes are increasingly being used to provide fodder for livestock, as they have a number of unique characteristics which make them attractive for both smallholder and largescale livestock enterprises. Research and development efforts have concentrated on broadening the resource base by evaluating a greater range of tree legume genera, defining optimum management strategies, and developing appropriate systems which capitalize on the advantages of these species.This paper reviews the role of tree legumes in agroforestry, especially for fodder purposes, outlines the areas of current research focus, and endeavors to highlight some gaps in our knowledge which require further research effort.     

Research methods for multistrata agroforestry systems with coffee and cacao: recommendations from two decades of research at CATIE

This paper reviews the research themes and methodologies used by CATIE in agroforestry research with shade trees over coffee (Coffea arabica) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) during the past 20 years. Initially research focused on characterization and production studies (of crop and timber including border areas) of traditional systems using temporary and permanent sample plots on private farms. The assessment area of traditional shade-coffee (or cacao) systems should be the whole plot, including the border areas, and not some subjectively selected central area which supposedly represents unit area productivity. Uncontrolled crop, tree, and management heterogeneity limited extrapolation of early on-farm research results to other farmers' fields. Replicated case studies of best bet technologies (traditional or experimental) on different farms are often preferable to the use of formal experimental designs. On-station research included the use of systematic spacing designs to test extreme shade tree density treatments of coffee. Most nutrient cycling studies were also carried out on-station, using service and timber shade species over coffee and cacao to evaluate the ability of these agroforestry systems to maintain nutrient reserves and diversify production. Plot size (even 36 × 36 m) was limiting for long term research because of inter-plot interference, both below- and above ground, when using fast growing, tall timber trees as shade. These experiences suggest a minimum plot size of 2,500 m². Individual tree designs and tree-crop interface studies (e.g. regression analysis of data taken along transects) are promising experimental/sampling approaches that need further development. The principal research thrusts proposed for the next five years are bio-physical process research on coffee responses to shade and competition with trees (growth, carbon allocation, phenology, disease-pest tolerance, yields and coffee quality effects) and socioeconomic analyses of both traditional and new or improved shade – coffee combinations vs. monocultures. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The scope and potential of agroforestry in Central America

Although agroforestry practices have been used in Central America since pre-Columbian times, scientific initiatives in agroforestry began only about 15 years ago in this region. This paper describes the evolution of agroforestry in the Central American region, and discusses the relative merits of generating new procedures or encouraging traditional practices. This is followed by an analysis of several particularly promising practices—use of N-fixing trees to shade cacao and coffee, timber trees in pastures, and living fenceposts. Finally, a list of research gaps and recommendations for future efforts is presented. It is concluded that, from the perspective of scientific knowledge, agroforestry in Central America has taken off but the link between scientific knowledge and effective field application is still lacking.     

Adoption of On-Farm Tree Planting in Kibaale District,Western Uganda

Using logistic and multiple regression analyses, this article examines the socioeconomic factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt on-farm tree planting, one of the agroforestry techniques promoted by government agencies and research institutions for use in the farming systems of Uganda. A household survey involving 200 farmers was carried out in the Subcounties of Kabamba, Mugarama, Kagadi, and Kiryanga in Kibaale District, western Uganda. From the analyses, we found out that a farmer's decision to adopt on-farm tree planting is influenced by household and field characteristics. Gender, tree tenure security, availability of seed and supply, guidance by extension and research Institutions, size of landholding per household, fuelwood scarcity, and main source of family income were the factors that significantly influenced the decision to adopt on-farm tree planting. We recommended that in order to promote increased adoption of on-farm tree planting, appropriate socioeconomic characterization should be explored in order to target areas with better adoption potential for optimal realization of the intended objectives by government agencies and research institutions.     

Socioeconomic research in agroforestry: a decade in review

Agroforestry research in academia and government and non-governmental agencies began by focusing on biophysical aspects. As this science represents a series of practices implemented by individual farmers, it requires in-depth social and economic analyses to assess economic feasibility of agroforestry systems, factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry, monitor the relevance and effectiveness of investigations, and guide future research efforts. This study presents literature dealing with socioeconomic issues in agroforestry research from interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journals, book chapters, and gray literature from 1992 to 2002. Over 500 publications were analyzed to determine relative dominance of geographical regions, types of analyses, agroforestry technologies, and socioeconomic issues. Trends were examined over time and by region. Overall, the body of literature exhibits an increasing trend toward regional and analytical diversity over time. Some deficiencies of regional and thematic nature were observed, which included underrepresented temperate regions and technologies such as riparian buffers, as well as only a small number of papers dealing with gender and property rights. These suggest opportunities for future investigations.     

Technology impact evaluation in agroforestry projects

To identify appropriate methods for evaluating the impact of new agroforestry technologies, ICRAF in 1988–89 contacted 166 projects worldwide about their activities in agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation. Of the 108 which responded, 45% were involved in some type of impact evaluation. This review revealed common difficulties in selecting impact indicators and methods of evaluation. Emphasis to date has been on evaluating numbers of trees planted and area under agroforestry, rather than socioeconomic impacts. Defining agroforestry adoption and distinguishing intermediate and final impacts were problematic. Impact studies were often difficult to interpret or compare, limiting their value for the rest of the agroforestry community. An analytical framework for planning impact evaluation in agroforestry projects is proposed, based on lessons learned from the review. Selection of indicators should depend upon whether project objectives relate to changes in: number and type of trees grown, land use, farmer knowledge and attitudes, availability of agroforestry products and services, and/or socioeconomic welfare. Data collection tools may include sequential photography or mapping, informal or formal farmer surveys, informal or formal field surveys, farmer meetings and workshops, trend analysis of project records, and case studies of households or communities, depending upon the audience for project evaluation and project resources.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cinderella</Emphasis> agroforestry systems

The underlying principles and traditional knowledge concerning indigenous agroforestry systems (AFS) around the world have been used successfully in the design of improved systems; but lately there has been a slow-down in that effort. Recognizing that Cinderella, by analogy, refers to an individual whose attributes were unrecognized or one who unexpectedly achieved success after a period of obscurity and neglect, we propose Cinderella agroforestry systems for such underexploited and “forgotten” AFS. In order to highlight their unrecognized potentials, a few such systems that are location-specific and little-known outside their areas of existence were selected from around the world. Each selected system is unique in terms of its production, environmental, and sociocultural attributes; but none had been described in quantitative terms of ecology and production. A qualitative SWOT (strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats) analysis of the systems showed several commonalities among them. While sustainability, multi-functionality, and high sociocultural values are common strengths, low levels of production and lack of research- and technology inputs to improve the system are the major weaknesses. The opportunities emanating from strengths and weaknesses are also common to all the systems; and “threats” to these systems arise mostly from ramifications of government policies. Given the acknowledged role of AFS in climate-smart agriculture and the current global momentum for working with communities to better manage landscapes, learning from success stories of the Cinderella AFS could suggest models for sustainable development, and efforts in that direction should also be incorporated into global agroforestry research agendas.     

Agroforestry education and training: a contemporary view

Most of the existing agroforestry courses have arisen opportunistically and tend to be based on the form that agroforestry takes, rather than on the way agroforestry practices function. Yet agroforestry research is beginning to supply ideas and information about the core issues (e.g., how woody and non-woody intercrops behave in terms of environmental resource capture, and how this can be influenced by the biology of the plant components and management). Similarly, recent socioeconomic research on agroforestry issues reveals dynamic systems of resource access, use, and control at various levels of human organization over time. It is true also that, because they were undertaken with different objectives in mind, the concepts derived from many decades of research in ecology, agriculture, and forestry still need to be reshaped for agroforestry situations. Likewise, socioeconomic content needs to move towards teaching the dynamics of decision-making, innovation, and change rather than describing static situations. This reshaping process itself offers exciting possibilities for educators who, thereby, could influence the course of research.These issues are briefly discussed in relation to the integration and development of research and teaching, and the needs of students and agroforestry professionals for educational and training courses. A draft proposal for the future of agroforestry at Cornell University is also outlined as a model for implementing such an approach.     

Agroforestry education and training activities at the University of Florida

The interdisciplinary program in agroforestry was established at the University of Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Science in 1987 in response to the growing interest in the subject among students and faculty members from different units of the university. It is now an internationally recognized center for education, training, and research in the subject. Pursuant to the overwhelming student and faculty interest in agroforestry issues in developing countries of the tropics and subtropics, the program is particularly active in those areas. Educational activities of the Program are at the post-graduate level. In conjunction with the degree granted in one of the designated departments or other academic units, students can earn a Specialization or Minor in Agroforestry by fulfilling certain requirements. Research projects are undertaken in such diverse topics as biophysical processes, production/conservation technologies, and socioeconomic aspects. Training activities include various short-term courses for professionals involved in management, development/extension, or research related to agroforestry.     

A spatial database approach for estimating areas suitable for agroforestry in subSaharan Africa: aggregation and use of agroforestry case studies

The growing awareness of the importance and potential of agroforestry has resulted in an invaluable proliferation of site specific case studies. These presently exist in the necessary quantity and quality so as to facilitate their aggregate utilization in larger-scale research and application inquiry. We report here an approach for aggregating and using agroforestry case studies for agroforestry-related research at scales larger than the local site. The work presented here describes how ICRAF's agroforestry database — the primary source of case studies — can be used in combination with satellite imagery, and ancillary information, via matrix operations and a geographic information system, to produce a GIS-based agroforestry research tool for subSaharan Africa. This tool is used in a large-scale and preliminary way, to estimate the areas to which appropriate agroforestry systems in Africa might be extended.     

Agroforestry species of the Bolivian Andes: an integrated assessment of ecological, economic and socio-cultural plant values

Agroforestry is a promising method for enhancing land-use sustainability in the Bolivian Andes. However, its benefits in terms of rural development are under-recognized due to gaps in understanding users?? perceptions while taking into consideration both local and global environmental goals. Our study aimed to narrow these gaps by developing an analytical framework for analyzing the site-specific socio-ecological factors and interactions related to local woody species and assessing their ecological, economic, and socio-cultural plant values in order to identify the most promising agroforestry species. The framework was then tested in an indigenous community at 2,760?C3,830?m?a.s.l., incorporating vegetation surveys, environmental studies, and interviews on plant functions. Ecological, economic, and socio-cultural values and the ecological apparency of plants were calculated, and detrended correspondence and principal component analyses helped to reveal the socio-ecological context of significant factors for plant distribution and uses. Results showed dominating seral woody species along an altitudinal gradient. Although shrubs were more ecologically apparent than trees, trees were perceived to be more valuable as the usefulness and cultural importance of species increased with plant height and timber availability. Phytosociological factors played a minor but still significant role in perceived usefulness. Schinus molle and Prosopis laevigata (<3,200?m a.s.l.), Polylepis subtusalbida (>3,200?m a.s.l.), and Baccharis dracunculifolia (both zones) were evaluated as most promising for agroforestry use. In conclusion, our analytical framework proved to be a valuable tool for context-specific agroforestry plant selection. Nonetheless, economic, technical, and socio-cultural limitations of cultivating native agroforestry species were revealed as well. Agroforestry science and practice should, therefore, focus on enhancing reproductive potentials of existing woody vegetation, as well as problem-oriented horizontal dialogues between indigenous, expert, and scientific actors.     

Assessing agroforestry adoption potential utilising market segmentation: A case study in Pennsylvania

In the United States, agroforestry adoption has lagged behind progress in agroforestry systems research. This study sought to facilitate the communication of landowner land management objectives, values, knowledge and perceptions of the barriers and benefits to agroforestry through applied social marketing research methods and market segmentation analysis. A mail survey instrument was sent to 250 members of the Pennsylvania Association of Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) and 250 members of Woodland Owner Associations (WOA). Current management objectives and production strategies, agroforestry awareness, agroforestry interest, and perceptions regarding the benefits and obstacles to agroforestry adoption were gauged. Market segmentation was performed with a two-step cluster analysis to produce four agroforestry adoption potential models: Timber-Related Practices, Livestock-Related Practices, Specialty Crop-Related Practices, and Non-Adopters. The analyses showed that agroforestry practices could satisfy specific land management objectives within diverse populations. The method effectively identified similarities in agroforestry adoption scenarios. Market segmentation could be utilised as a social marketing tool to guide future policy development, scientific research, and the efficacy and relevance of future agroforestry research and outreach programs. The next step in program development should include the creation of a statewide multidisciplinary team comprised of university, non-profit association and landowner representation, to develop agroforestry applications relevant to each cluster and promote the practices through landowner-led on-farm demonstrations and workshops.     

Livelihood Improvements Through Agroforestry: Evidence from Northern Bangladesh

Agroforestry is one of the most sustainable land management systems practiced around the world due to the socioeconomic benefits that it brings to farmers. In Bangladesh, farmers practice agroforestry, applying indigenous knowledge. The present study was designed to identify the present status, management practices and its role in improving the livelihoods of farmers in northern Bangladesh. Data for the study were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. A total of 29 tree and 38 agricultural crop species were planted by the102 farmers interviewed. Mangifera indica (relative prevalence 49%) is the most predominant species, followed by Eucalyptus camaldulensis (relative prevalence 35.4%). Farmers of northern Bangladesh plant trees in cropland for fruits (90%), fuel wood (87%) and timber production (79%). Fruit trees were planted with wider spacing while forest and fuel wood species were planted with narrower spacing. Farmer’s livelihoods improved enormously by practicing agroforestry as they have more access to food, fodder and fuel wood which is reflected by greater access to livelihood capitals (except social capital). However, farmers have experienced increased incidences of pests and diseases to the annual crops and trees. Agroforestry practices increases species diversity, ensure economic return and sustain farmer’s livelihoods.     

Farmers’ reasoning behind the uptake of agroforestry practices: evidence from multiple case-studies across Europe

Potential benefits and costs of agroforestry practices have been analysed by experts, but few studies have captured farmers’ perspectives on why agroforestry might be adopted on a European scale. This study provides answers to this question, through an analysis of 183 farmer interviews in 14 case study systems in eight European countries. The study systems included high natural and cultural value agroforestry systems, silvoarable systems, high value tree systems, and silvopasture systems, as well as systems where no agroforestry practices were occurring. A mixed method approach combining quantitative and qualitative approaches was taken throughout the interviews. Narrative thematic data analysis was performed. Data collection proceeded until no new themes emerged. Within a given case study, i.e. the different systems in different European regions, this sampling was performed both for farmers who practice agroforestry and farmers who did not. Results point to a great diversity of agroforestry practices, although many of the farmers are not aware of the term or concept of agroforestry, despite implementing the practice in their own farms. While only a few farmers mentioned eligibility for direct payments in the CAP as the main reason to remove trees from their land, to avoid the reduction of the funded area, the tradition in the family or the region, learning from others, and increasing the diversification of products play the most important role in adopting or not agroforestry systems.     

Comparisons of Mayan forest management, restoration, and conservation

Numerous communities associated with at least five distinct ethnic Mayan groups in southern Mexico and Central America continue to rely upon forested areas as integral components of their agricultural systems. They carefully manage these areas so that forests provide food, raw materials, and animals. Management practices include removing and planting of woody and herbaceous species, apiculture, and seed harvest. Mayan agroforestry systems in geographically and ecologically distinct areas of Mesoamerica were evaluated to better understand traditional agroforestry system components and how indigenous Mayan agroforestry could be a part of regional forest conservation and restoration. Systems were within Mexican land grant areas (ejidos) or on contested land. Although these systems rely upon different woody species and management techniques, common among them are: (1) the use of multi-stage and successional pathways with forest as a part of the larger system, (2) species that are believed by traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) to accelerate forest regeneration - more than 30 tree species are recognized and managed as potential facilitators of forest regeneration and (3) direct human consumption of forest products at all stages of regeneration.     

How local stakeholders perceive agroforestry systems: an Italian perspective

This paper reports the results of a study conducted in Italy, within the AGFORWARD (2014–2017) project, aimed at promoting innovative agroforestry practices in Europe. Agroforestry offers a means for maintaining food production whilst addressing some of the negative environmental effects of intensive agriculture. This study aims to elicit the positive and negative points of view and perceptions of local stakeholders in Italy in relation to three types of agroforestry systems. The Participatory Research and Network Development was implemented in three workshops conducted in Sardinia, Umbria, and Veneto regions, and applied adopting a common methodological protocol. Qualitative data were obtained using open discussions with stakeholders on key issues, challenges and innovations. Quantitative data were obtained from stakeholders completing questionnaires during the workshops. A statistical analysis was applied to elicit the differences in stakeholders’ positive and negative perceptions in relation to production, management, environment and socio-economy aspects. Although the participants in the study came from different geographical and socioeconomic contexts with varied educational and cultural backgrounds, the different professional groups (farmers, policy-makers and researchers) and the three workshops generally shared similar perceptions of the benefits and constraints. The effects of agroforestry on production and the environment were generally perceived as positive, whilst those related to management were generally negative. The process of bringing the groups together seemed to be an effective means for identifying the key research gaps that need to be addressed in order to promote the uptake and maintenance of agroforestry.