Glucose tolerance testing in llamas and alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To determine blood glucose clearance in 2 species of New World camelids after IV challenge and to examine mechanisms of this clearance. ANIMALS: 5 adult female llamas and 5 adult gelded alpacas. PROCEDURE: After food was withheld for 12 hours, camelids received 0.5 g of glucose/kg of body weight by rapid IV infusion. Serum concentrations of glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, cortisol, and insulin, and plasma concentrations of lactate were determined before and 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, and 240 minutes after infusion. Ratios of insulin to glucose and insulin to cortisol were calculated for each time point. RESULTS: Postinfusion glucose concentrations were significantly higher in llamas than alpacas for the first 15 minutes and remained significantly higher than baseline values in both species for 180 minutes. Lactate and cortisol concentrations did not change significantly; nonesterified fatty acid concentrations decreased in both species 30 minutes after infusion. Baseline insulin concentrations were < 6 microU/ml in both species and increased only to 10.1 +/- 0.7 microU/ml in llamas. Insulin concentrations did not change significantly in alpacas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Llamas and alpacas clear glucose more slowly than other domestic species after challenge, mainly because of a weak insulin response and slow cellular uptake. This response may impair the assimilation of exogenous glucose as well as make llamas and alpacas prone to diabetes-like disorders when an abundance of endogenous or exogenous glucogenic agents are present.     

Hematologic effects of subcutaneous administration of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (filgrastim) in healthy alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of SC administration of filgrastim on cell counts in venous blood and bone marrow of healthy adult alpacas. ANIMALS: 10 healthy alpacas. PROCEDURES: Alpacas were randomly assigned to receive treatment with filgrastim (5 microg/kg, SC; n=5) or an equivalent volume of physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (5) once a day for 3 days. Blood samples were obtained via jugular venipuncture 1 day prior to treatment and once a day for 5 days commencing 24 hours after the first dose was administered. Complete blood counts were performed for each blood sample. Bone marrow aspirates were obtained from the sternum of each alpaca 48 hours before the first treatment was administered and 72 hours after the third treatment was administered. Myeloid-to-erythroid cell (M:E) ratio was determined via cytologic evaluation of bone marrow aspirates. RESULTS: In filgrastim-treated alpacas, substantial increases in counts of WBCs and neutrophils were detected within 24 hours after the first dose was administered. Band cell count and percentage significantly increased 24 hours after the second dose. Counts of WBCs, neutrophils, and band cells remained high 48 hours after the third dose. Red blood cell counts and PCV were unaffected. The M:E ratio also increased significantly after treatment with filgrastim. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Filgrastim induced rapid and substantial increases in numbers of circulating neutrophils and M:E ratios of bone marrow in healthy alpacas. Therefore, filgrastim may be useful in the treatment of camelids with impaired bone marrow function.     

Peritoneal fluid values and collection technique in young,normal calves

Peritoneal fluid from 10 healthy young male Holstein calves was analyzed three times (2 to 3 days, 12 to 15 days and 27 to 30 days) during the first month of life. A new technique for collection of peritoneal fluid from calves positioned in left lateral recumbency was developed. The technique was found to be reliable and without noticeable complications. Mean peritoneal fluid nucleated cell counts, red blood cell counts, and absolute counts for mononuclear cells, lymphocytes and eosinophils did not change significantly (P 相似文献   

Assessment of the effects of epinephrine and insulin on plasma and serum biochemical variables in llamas and alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To describe the metabolic effects of epinephrine administration in New World camelids and investigate whether these effects are influenced by administration of insulin. ANIMALS: 6 llamas and 8 alpacas (all adult castrated males). PROCEDURE: Prior to each experiment, food was withheld from camelids for 8 hours. On each of 2 consecutive days, alpacas were administered epinephrine (10 mg/kg, IM; time 0); alpacas were randomly assigned to receive regular insulin (0.2 U/kg, IV) immediately after epinephrine administration on one of those days. In llamas, the experiment was performed once after administration of epinephrine only. At 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, and 240 minutes after treatment, blood samples were collected and several serum or plasma biochemical variables were assessed; in addition, plasma samples from llamas were assessed for insulin concentrations. Data were compared between days (alpacas only) and between time points. RESULTS: Administration of epinephrine induced mobilization of glucose, triglycerides, nonesterified fatty acids, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. A small increase in endogenous insulin concentration was detected in epinephrine-treated llamas, compared with baseline values. Overall, insulin administration decreased, negated, or delayed the epinephrine-associated increases in serum or plasma concentrations of circulating energy substrates, except that it augmented the epinephrine-associated increase in concentration of triglycerides. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Epinephrine appeared to mobilize energy substrates in camelids and hence may be involved in the pathogenesis of disorders of glucose and fat metabolism. Insulin appeared to antagonize most of these effects, and its administration may have therapeutic value in camelids.     

Evaluation of peritoneal fluid pH, glucose concentration, and lactate dehydrogenase activity for detection of septic peritonitis in horses

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether peritoneal fluid pH, glucose concentration, and lactate dehydrogenase activity can be used to differentiate horses with septic peritonitis from those with nonseptic peritonitis. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 46 horses, including 10 healthy horses, 15 horses with septic peritonitis, and 21 horses with nonseptic peritonitis. PROCEDURE: Peritoneal fluid and blood samples were analyzed for pH, glucose concentration, and lactate dehydrogenase activity. Complete blood cell counts were performed, and peritoneal fluid samples were submitted for bacterial culture. RESULTS: Horses with septic peritonitis had significantly lower peritoneal fluid pH and glucose concentrations than horses with nonseptic peritonitis and healthy horses. Compared with other tests, serum-to-peritoneal fluid glucose concentration differences > 50 mg/dl had the highest diagnostic use for detection of septic peritonitis. Peritoneal fluid pH < 7.3, glucose concentration < 30 mg/dl, and fibrinogen concentration > 200 mg/dl were also highly indicative of septic peritonitis. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Peritoneal fluid pH and glucose concentration can be used to assist in the identification of horses with septic peritonitis. These measurements can provide an early indication of sepsis, especially if cytologic evaluation of peritoneal fluid is unavailable or results are equivocal and peritoneal fluid bacterial culture results are pending.     

Diagnostic Accuracy of D‐Dimer and Other Peritoneal Fluid Analysis Measurements in Dairy Cows with Peritonitis

Background: Peritoneal fluid analysis in cattle traditionally includes the classic parameters despite the fact that they have only moderate diagnostic accuracy and often fail to identify the pathogenesis or etiological factors. Therefore additional parameters recently have been established to improve diagnostic precision. In a recent study, reference ranges for several of these parameters have been proposed in dairy cows. Hypothesis/Objectives: The aim of this observational study was to assess the diagnostic value of D‐Dimer and other measurements of peritoneal fluid analysis in dairy cows with peritonitis. Animals: The study included 110 Holstein‐Friesian cows grouped into cows with peritonitis (n = 47) and cows without peritonitis (n = 63). Methods: Peritoneal fluid was obtained by abdominocentesis. Total protein, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, fibrinogen, l ‐lactate, D‐Dimer, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase, creatine phosphokinase, white blood cell, and red blood cell were determined in peritoneal fluid and venous blood. Serum‐ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) and ratios of peritoneal fluid‐venous blood were calculated. Sensitivity (SN) and specificity (SP) were calculated and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis performed. Results: Peritoneal fluid D‐Dimer was most accurate in diagnosing peritonitis in cows (SN and SP>95.0%). Total protein concentration, LDH and LDH ratio, and SAAG had sensitivities between 49.0 and 67.1%, and specificities between 88.4 and 95.5%. A low‐peritoneal fluid glucose concentration was found to be highly indicative of septic peritonitis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Measurement of the recently introduced parameters may increase the diagnostic value of peritoneal fluid analysis and provide additional specific information. Therefore these measurements should be included in the routine procedure.     

Direct colloid osmometry in healthy New World camelids

Background: Direct colloid osmometry provides an objective assessment of the oncotic effects of crystalloid or colloidal fluid therapy, which is especially useful in monitoring fluid therapy of critically ill camelids due to their tendency toward nonspecific hypoproteinemia with increased risk of developing edema and ascites. Objectives: The aims of this study were to measure colloid osmotic pressure (COP) of alpacas and llamas, determine its correlation with concentrations of total protein (TP) and total solids (TS), as well as both albumin (A) and globulin (G) concentrations in the same model (A+G), and evaluate the effects of sample type and storage conditions on COP. Methods: Blood was collected from clinically healthy alpacas (n=23) and llamas (n=22) into heparin tubes. COP of fresh whole blood (COP_FB) and plasma (COP_FP) was determined using a membrane osmometer. For 20 alpacas, COP of refrigerated whole blood (COP_RB) and frozen plasma (COP_FrP) was also measured. Correlations between COP_FB and TS, TP, and A+G concentrations were assessed by simple and multiple regression analysis to model potential predictors. Results: Median COP_FB from alpacas (24.6 mmHg, range 19.3–28.1) was not significantly different from that of llamas (25.3 mmHg, range 22.5–33.7). Sample type or storage conditions did not affect COP. Measured COP had a strong positive linear correlation with TS, TP, and A+G concentrations in alpacas (r²=.7, .74, and .88, respectively). In llamas, COP correlated best with TS concentration (r²=.59), whereas correlation with TP and A+G concentrations was poor (r²=.19 and .25, respectively). Conclusion: COP can be measured using heparinized whole blood or plasma, either fresh or stored. Direct measurement is recommended whenever quantitative knowledge of COP is required in clinical or research setting. Further studies are needed to verify if the poor association of COP with TP found in this study can be generalized to llamas.     

Comparison of peritoneal fluid and peripheral blood pH,bicarbonate, glucose,and lactate concentration as a diagnostic tool for septic peritonitis in dogs and cats

OBJECTIVE: To establish a reliable diagnostic tool for septic peritonitis in dogs and cats using pH, bicarbonate, lactate, and glucose concentrations in peritoneal fluid and venous blood. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: Eighteen dogs and 12 cats with peritoneal effusion. METHODS: pH, bicarbonate, electrolyte, lactate, and glucose concentrations were measured on 1- to 2-mL samples of venous blood and peritoneal fluid collected at admission. The concentration difference between blood and peritoneal fluid for pH, bicarbonate, glucose, and lactate concentrations were calculated by subtracting the peritoneal fluid concentration from the blood concentration. Peritoneal fluid was submitted for cytologic examination and bacterial culture. Peritonitis was classified as septic or nonseptic based on cytology and bacterial culture results. RESULTS: In dogs, with septic effusion, peritoneal fluid glucose concentration was always lower than the blood glucose concentration. A blood-to-fluid glucose (BFG) difference > 20 mg/dL was 100% sensitive and 100% specific for the diagnosis of septic peritoneal effusion in dogs. In 7 dogs in which it was evaluated, a blood-to-fluid lactate (BFL) difference < -2.0 mmol/L was also 100% sensitive and specific for a diagnosis of septic peritoneal effusion. In cats, the BFG difference was 86% sensitive and 100% specific for a diagnosis of septic peritonitis. In dogs and cats, the BFG difference was more accurate for a diagnosis of septic peritonitis than peritoneal fluid glucose concentration alone. CONCLUSIONS: A concentration difference > 20 mg/dL between blood and peritoneal fluid glucose concentration provides a rapid and reliable means to differentiate a septic peritoneal effusion from a nonseptic peritoneal effusion in dogs and cats. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The difference between blood and peritoneal fluid glucose concentrations should be used as a more reliable diagnostic indicator of septic peritoneal effusion than peritoneal fluid glucose concentration alone.     

Evaluation of peritoneal fluid lactate as a marker of intestinal ischaemia in equine colic

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The most common cause of death as a direct result of colic is acute circulatory failure secondary to intestinal ischaemia. Early and accurate recognition of ischaemic bowel is essential to decrease complications and increase survival. Blood to peritoneal lactate values have been evaluated as a prognostic indicator, but lactate values characterised by type of lesion have not been reported. HYPOTHESIS: Plasma and peritoneal lactate values are higher in horses with intestinal ischaemia secondary to a strangulating obstruction (ISSO). METHODS: Venous blood and peritoneal fluid were collected sequentially from 20 clinically healthy horses and 189 horses admitted for colic during a one-year period. Blood gas, pH, electrolyte (K+, Na+, Ca++, Cl-), glucose and lactate values were determined for blood and peritoneal fluid samples; other values recorded for peritoneal fluid included gross appearance, total protein and nucleated cell count. Information regarding diagnosis, treatment and outcome was retrieved from the medical records. RESULTS: Peritoneal and plasma levels of lactate were lower in control compared to clinical cases. Horses with ISSO had a higher peritoneal lactate value (8.45 mmol/l) than those with nonstrangulating obstruction (2.09 mmo/l). Factors with the strongest correlations with the presence of ISSO were changes in the gross appearance of the peritoneal fluid and values of peritoneal fluid chloride, pH and log10 lactate. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of peritoneal fluid gross appearance, pH, lactate and chloride can be used for diagnosis of ISSO. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Peritoneal fluid lactate is a better predictor of ISSO than blood lactate and may aid in early detection of catastrophic peritoneal lesions such as intestinal strangulation and rupture.     

Effects of enterocentesis on peritoneal fluid constituents in the horse

Peritoneal fluid was collected from 15 clinically normal horses and was analyzed for nucleated cell (NC) counts and specific gravity. Six horses (controls, group 1) were subjected to abdominocentesis only, with a teat cannula, every 24 hours for 5 days. There were no marked changes in the peritoneal fluid of these horses over the 5-day period. Peritoneal fluid was collected from 6 other horses (group 2) with an 8.89-cm 18-gauge needle. The needle was then advanced until intestinal fluid was obtained. Peritoneal fluid was then collected with teat cannulas at 24-hour intervals for an additional 4 days. Peritoneal fluid NC counts from group 2 horses were significantly increased (P less than 0.05) at peak values 2 days after enterocentesis. Specific gravities of peritoneal fluid from group 2 horses were increased on days 1 and 2 after enterocentesis (P greater than 0.05). Peritoneal fluid from 3 other horses (group 3) was collected before enterocentesis (base line) and again at 4-hour intervals after enterocentesis. Peritoneal fluid NC counts of group 3 horses were markedly increased above base-line values 4 hours after enterocentesis and continued to increase for up to 12 hours after enterocentesis when the experiment was terminated. All horses that underwent enterocentesis remained clinically normal except 1 group 3 horse that had a fever (39.6 C) 24 hours after enterocentesis.     

South American camelids in Switzerland. II. Reference values for blood parameters

In order to establish reference values for blood parameters of South American camelids in Switzerland, 273 blood samples were collected from 141 llamas and 132 alpacas. These animals were classified in three categories (young animals < six months, adult females and males). Forty-one parameters were measured (red blood cell count, white blood cell count, electrolytes, metabolites and enzymes). Significant differences between llamas and alpacas were evident for 26 parameters. This study also showed that differences between young animals, females and males must be taken into consideration. A comparison of blood values with the results of fecal analysis for parasite eggs showed that an infestation with Dicrocoelium dendriticum was associated with elevated activity of two liver enzymes (GLDH and gamma-GT) in the serum. In contrast, no differences were found in the results of blood analyses between animals shedding eggs of gastrointestinal strongyles or not.     

Determination of electrocardiographic parameters in healthy llamas and alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To determine electrocardiographic parameters in healthy llamas and alpacas. ANIMALS: 23 llamas and 12 alpacas. PROCEDURE: Electrocardiography was performed in nonsedated standing llamas and alpacas by use of multiple simultaneous lead recording (bipolar limb, unipolar augmented limb, and unipolar precordial leads). RESULTS: Common features of ECGs of llamas and alpacas included low voltage of QRS complexes, variable morphology of QRS complexes among camelids, and mean depolarization vectors (mean electrical axes) that were directed dorsocranially and to the right. Durations of the QT interval and ST segment were negatively correlated with heart rate. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: ECGs of acceptable quality can be consistently recorded in nonsedated standing llamas and alpacas. Features of ECGs in llamas and alpacas are similar to those of other ruminants. Changes in the morphology of the QRS complexes and mean electrical axis are unlikely to be sensitive indicators of ventricular enlargement in llamas and alpacas.     

Evaluation of intraocular pressure in eyes of clinically normal llamas and alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To estimate intraocular pressure (IOP) in eyes of healthy camelids, using applanation tonometry. ANIMALS: The eyes of 34 camelids (16 llamas [Lama glamal and 18 alpacas [L. pacos]) that did not have major abnormalities of the ocular surface or intraocular abnormalities. PROCEDURE: Tonometry measurements were obtained from each eye 3 times during a 24-hour period. Each measurement was the mean of several corneal applanations obtained by use of an applanation tonometer. Data were analyzed, using an ANOVA for a repeated-measures design. RESULTS: Mean (+/- SEM) IOP of llamas and alpacas was 13.10+/-0.35 and 14.85+/-0.45 mm Hg, respectively. Range of IOP was 7 to 18 mm Hg for llamas and 11 to 21 mm Hg for alpacas. Mean IOP of llamas was significantly less than the mean IOP of alpacas. Significant differences in IOP were not detected between the right and left eye of animals. Significant differences in IOP were not attributed to sex, age, or time of measurement within llamas or alpacas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Establishing the mean and range of IOP of clinically normal llamas and alpacas provides a frame of reference that is important for use in a complete ophthalmic examination of camelids, which can assist clinicians in the diagnosis of glaucoma and uveitis. Reasons for the difference in mean IOP between llamas and alpacas are unknown. Although the difference may be unimportant clinically, this finding reiterates the fact that caution must be used when extrapolating IOP among species.     

Peritoneal fluid analysis in adult, nonpregnant Awassi sheep

BACKGROUND: To the authors' knowledge, there is no information in the literature about normal peritoneal fluid values in ovine species. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the study reported here was to establish reference intervals for peritoneal fluid from clinically normal Awassi sheep and to compare the values to those in blood. METHODS: Peritoneal fluid and blood samples were collected into tubes containing EDTA, from 40 clinically healthy, nonpregnant, female Awassi sheep, aged 2 to 7 years. Total nucleated cell count (TNCC) was determined using an electronic cell counter. Total protein, albumin, urea, creatinine, and glucose concentrations and aspartate transaminase activity were analyzed using commercially available kits. RESULTS: TNCC (mean +/- SD) of peritoneal fluid was 1.1 +/- 0.87 X 10(3)/microl, with neutrophils (3.9%), lymphocytes (33.5%), macrophages/monocytes (61.2%), and eosinophils (1.4%). Biochemical results in peritoneal fluid were: total protein, 1.7 +/- 0.74 g/dL; albumin, 1.0 +/- 0.04 g/dL; urea, 12.6 +/- 3.95 mg/dL; creatinine, 0.6 +/- 0.19 mg/dL; glucose, 54.8 +/- 6.11 mg/dL; and aspartate transaminase, 23.5 +/- 8.82 U/L. Eosinophil percentage and creatinine concentration did not differ significantly from blood values. CONCLUSION: Baseline values for cytologic and biochemical parameters in peritoneal fluid of Awassi sheep, with comparison to blood, have been generated. Such data may be applicable to other ovine species and can be used in the clinical investigation of ovine abdominal disorders.     

Analysis of synovial fluid from clinically normal alpacas and llamas

OBJECTIVE: To establish reference range values for synovial fluid from clinically normal New World camelids. ANIMALS: 15 llamas and 15 alpacas. PROCEDURE: Llamas and alpacas were anesthetized with an IM injection of a xylazine hydrochloride, butorphanol tartrate, and ketamine hydrochloride combination. Synovial fluid (1 to 2 ml) was obtained by aseptic arthrocentesis from the radiocarpal and tarsocrural joints. Synovial fluid evaluation included determination of total nucleated cell count (NCC), absolute number and percentage of polymorphonuclear (PMN) and mononuclear leukocytes, total protein, and specific gravity. RESULTS: Synovial fluid evaluation revealed a total NCC of 100 to 1,400 cells/microl (mean +/- SD, 394.8+/-356.2 cells/microl; 95% confidence interval [CI], 295.2 to 494.6 cells/microl). Mononuclear leukocytes were the predominant cell type with lymphocytes, composing 50 to 90% (mean, 75.6+/-172%; 95% CI, 70.8 to 80.4%) of the mononuclear leukocytes. Approximately 0 to 12% (mean, 1.3+/-2.9%; 95% CI, 0.49 to 2.11%) of the cells were PMN leukocytes. Total protein concentrations ranged from 2.0 to 3.8 g/dl (mean, 2.54+/-0.29 g/dl; 95% CI, 2.46 to 2.62 g/dl); the specific gravity ranged between 1.010 and 1.026 (mean, 1.017+/-0.003; 95% CI, 1.016 to 1.018). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In llamas and alpacas, significant differences do not exist between species or between limbs (left vs right) or joints (radiocarpal vs tarsocrural) for synovial fluid values. Total NCC and absolute number and percentage of PMN and mononuclear leukocyte are similar to those of other ruminants and horses. However, synovial fluid total protein concentrations in New World camelids are high, compared with other domestic species.     

Pathogenesis of Streptococcus zooepidemicus infection after intratracheal inoculation in llamas

OBJECTIVES: To test whether generalized Streptococcus zooepidemicus infection could be induced by intratracheal inoculation in llamas and to characterize this infection. ANIMALS: 6 test and 3 control llamas. PROCEDURE: Test llamas received 1 of 3 dosages of S. zooepidemicus by intratracheal injection, whereas control llamas received sterile culture medium. Physical examination variables and results of clinicopathologic analyses of blood, peritoneal fluid, and tracheal wash fluid were compared in test llamas between, before, and during the development of bacteremia and with control llamas. Bacteriologic culture was performed on all collected body fluids and tissue specimens that were collected at necropsy. Tissue specimens that were collected at necropsy were examined histologically. RESULTS: Infection induced fever, anorexia, and signs of depression. Five of 6 infected llamas developed specific signs of inflammation in the thorax or abdomen, bacteremia, neutrophilic leukocytosis with toxic changes and high band neutrophil cell counts, hyperfibrinogenemia, and high peritoneal fluid WBC counts and protein concentrations. On development of bacteremia, llamas had significant decreases in serum iron (from 118+/-25 to 6+/-4 microg/ml) and increases in serum glucose (from 131+/-5 to 253+/-48 mg/dl) concentrations. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Streptococcus zooepidemicus spreads rapidly to other body compartments after intratracheal inoculation in llamas. Fever, anorexia, and signs of depression are the most consistent clinical signs, although other signs are possible. Clinicopathologic analysis of body fluids yields evidence of inflammation. Infection by S. zooepidemicus can be proven by bacteriologic culture of body fluids before death or of tissue specimens after death.     

Density of corneal endothelial cells, corneal thickness, and corneal diameters in normal eyes of llamas and alpacas

OBJECTIVE: To determine density of corneal endothelial cells, corneal thickness, and corneal diameters in normal eyes of llamas and alpacas. ANIMALS: 36 llamas and 20 alpacas. PROCEDURE: Both eyes were examined in each camelid. Noncontact specular microscopy was used to determine density of corneal endothelial cells. Corneal thickness was measured, using ultrasonographic pachymetry. Vertical and horizontal corneal diameters were measured, using Jameson calipers. RESULTS: Values did not differ significantly between the right and left eyes from the same camelid. There was no significant effect of sex on density of corneal endothelial cells or corneal thickness in either species. Mean density of endothelial cells was 2,669 cells/mm2 in llamas and 2,275 cells/mm2 in alpacas. Density of endothelial cells decreased with age in llamas. Polymegathism was observed frequently in both species. Mean corneal thickness was 608 microm for llamas and 595 microm for alpacas. Corneal thickness and density of endothelial cells were negatively correlated in llamas. Older (> 36 months old) llamas had significantly larger horizontal and vertical corneal diameters than younger llamas, and older alpacas had a significantly larger vertical corneal diameter than younger alpacas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Density of corneal endothelial cells is only slightly lower in camelids than other domestic species. Density of endothelial cells decreases with age in llamas. Age or sex does not significantly affect corneal thickness in normal eyes of llamas and alpacas. Specular microscopy is useful for determining density of corneal endothelial cells in normal eyes of camelids.     

Effects of abdominocentesis technique on peritoneal fluid and clinical variables in horses

Eleven healthy horses underwent 5 repeated abdominocenteses, with either a sharp‐tipped spinal needle or a blunt‐tipped teat cannula to investigate possible differences in success rate, sample volume, depth at which a sample was obtained, length of procedure, complications and cytological variables. Variables were analysed with a repeated‐measures ANOVA or Fisher's exact test (α = 0.05). Success rate, sample volume, length of procedure, occurrence of haemorrhage during the procedure and incidence of grossly visible blood contamination were not different between techniques or over time. Depth at which samples were obtained was greater using a cannula than a needle (P<0.02), and samples were obtained with either technique at a greater depth than abdominal wall thickness assessed via ultrasound (P<0.014). Peritoneal fluid total and differential nucleated cell counts, and total protein concentration did not differ between techniques or over time. Red blood cell count in the least blood contaminated fraction of each sample was not affected by time, but it was lower after needle abdominocentesis than after cannula abdominocentesis (P = 0.04). Swelling of abdominocentesis sites increased with both techniques over time (P<0.05) and was more severe in horses undergoing cannula abdominocentesis (P<0.05). Enterocentesis occurred with a spinal needle in one horse, but no subsequent complications were noted. Both techniques appear to be safe and reliable for abdominocentesis in healthy horses. Using a blunt‐tipped cannula, as opposed to a needle, is likely to result in greater subcutaneous swelling. Both the cannula and needle must be long enough to penetrate well beyond the thickness of the abdominal wall to achieve successful peritoneal fluid collection.     

Characterization of hypertriglyceridemia and response to treatment with insulin in llamas and alpacas: 31 cases (1995-2005)

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate camelids with hypertriglyceridemia with regard to signalment, clinical features of disease, and response to treatment with insulin. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 23 alpacas and 8 llamas with hypertriglyceridemia. PROCEDURES: For analysis of medical record data, 20 hypertriglyceridemic camelids with multiple recorded measurements of serum or plasma triglycerides concentration were classified as follows: those with an initial triglycerides concentration > 60 to > or = 500 mg/dL that were or were not treated with insulin (HT-I and HT-N camelids, respectively) and those with an initial triglycerides concentration > 500 mg/dL that were treated with insulin (lipemic [LIP-I] camelids). Only 1 recorded triglycerides concentration was available for an additional 11 hypertriglyceridemic camelids; data from those records were included in the characterization of signalment and clinical features of disease. RESULTS: Compared with the general population of hospitalized camelids, hypertriglyceridemic camelids did not differ significantly with respect to age or sex. Of 22 female camelids, only 7 were lactating or pregnant. Serum or plasma triglycerides concentrations in HT-N and HT-I camelids did not differ significantly at admission, but triglycerides concentrations in HT-I camelids decreased significantly after insulin treatment. Posttreatment triglycerides concentrations in HT-I camelids were significantly lower than those in HT-N camelids. During the period of hospitalization, triglycerides concentrations in HT-N camelids increased, whereas those in LIP-I camelids decreased significantly. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that hypertriglyceridemia affects llamas and alpacas of all ages and both sexes. Insulin treatment may reduce serum or plasma triglycerides concentrations in camelids with hypertriglyceridemia.