Snow gliding on a south-facing slope covered with larch trees

? Context

Snow gliding is a downhill motion of snow on the ground; observations have shown gliding to be possible not only on open slopes but also in forest stands. Larch stands, with their low canopy density and open forest structure with clearings and gaps, are particularly prone to high glide rates. Snow gliding may have negative effects on juvenescent trees which can be damaged by extraction from the ground.

? Aim

The goal of this study was to determine whether snow gliding depends on forest cover (canopy) and size of clearings.

? Methods

Snow gliding was measured during eight winter periods at six measuring positions (ranging from ‘dense forest’ to ‘open slope’) in and beside a larch stand in the Stubai Valley, Tyrol, Austria.

? Results

The results showed that gliding is strongly influenced by forest cover. Snow gliding increases with decreasing canopy density. The difference between the six measuring positions was highly significant (p?<?0.005).

? Conclusion

The identified glide cracks on at least two measuring positions, indicating extreme glide rates and, therefore, strong negative effects on juvenescent trees. To prevent glide rates of a magnitude such as this requires a mature forest with at least 300 stems/ha.     

蚂蚁河上游水源林适生立地条件研究

在蚂蚁河上游小流域以落叶松为试验树种进行不同立地因子造林试验,结果表明：不同地类上落叶松的地径、树高和近3年高生长量均以荒山荒地最高;落叶松树高生长以东坡和北坡最高,地径生长以南坡最大;暗棕壤上落叶松生长最好;土壤厚度与落叶松的各个生长量指标存在紧密的正相关关系。     

Snow damages on trees of an uneven age in mixed broadleaf forests:effects of topographical conditions and tree characteristics

Snow damage on natural stands is an important problem concerning mountainous forest management.In the present research,the frequency and intensity of heavy snow damage on natural stands and the relationship of damages with characteristics of trees,stand and topography were studied in mountainous forests of northern Iran.A systematic sampling design was applied to the study area(140 ha),with 122 circular plots.The grid dimension was100 m and each plot area was 1000 m^2.The four types of snow damage to trees include:crown damage(8.6%),stem breakage(5.4%),uprooting(3.2%),and bending(1.4%).The frequency of crown damage grew with an increase inthe diameter at breast height(DBH),while the frequency of stem breakage,uprooting and bending decreased with an increase the DBH.The frequency of crown damage,stem breakage,and total damages was related to tree species(p<0.01).Not all tree species were equally susceptible to snow damage.The amount of damage grew with increasing elevation and slope angle and decreased with increasing soil depth.Young trees(DBH<25 cm)were more susceptible to snow damage than other trees.Snow damage decreased by as the trees in the stand became more mixed in age.The susceptibility of trees to snow damage increased by height and slenderness coefficient.With adequate silvicultural operation,snow damage can be reduced to a minimum level in these natural forests.     

Effects of moisture limitation on tree growth in upland and floodplain forest ecosystems in interior Alaska

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of summer throughfall on the growth of trees, at upland and floodplain locations, in the vicinity of Fairbanks, Alaska. Corrugated clear plastic covers were installed under the canopy of floodplain balsam poplar/white spruce stands and upland hardwood/white spruce stands to control soil moisture recharge as a result of summer precipitation. The covers were installed in 1989 and tree growth measurements were conducted through 2005. Soil moisture dynamics were measured using TDR techniques. Tree basal area growth at dbh in the control plots was approximately twice as high on the floodplain compared to the upland. Summer throughfall exclusion significantly decreased white spruce growth on the floodplain sites but not in the upland sites. In upland sites the melting snow pack is a major moisture resource for tree growth although it is not clear if moisture limitation occurs during the summer in the control plots. However in the floodplain stands white spruce growth was highly dependent on seasonal throughfall even though the ground water table was within the rooting zone and the soils were supplied with a spring recharge due to snowmelt. A number of factors were suggested as a foundation for this strong relationship. These include rooting distribution, soil texture, and the electrical conductivity of the ground water.     

宁夏六盘山华北落叶松人工林雪害的影响因子

调查宁夏六盘山2011年秋一场罕见的早雪造成的华北落叶松人工林受害情况,分析林分受害率与立地条件和林分结构特征的关系。结果表明:高海拔冲风地段和土层瘠薄立地的林分受害率偏大;高密度林分的受害率显著大于低密度林分,说明密度是影响林分抵抗雪灾能力的重要结构指标,但直接原因是林分密度增高导致林分高径比增大;当高径比在0.7～0.9时,样地出现受害,但受害率随高径比增大的增幅不大,当高径比大于0.9后,林分受害率随高径比增大快速升高,当高径比大于1.0后,林分受害率随高径比增大急剧升高;及时间伐降低林木密度,把林分高径比降到0.7左右并维持在0.9以内,是提高森林抵抗雪灾能力的可行营林措施。     

不同施肥处理对雪灾后毛竹林恢复生长的影响

2008年春天我国南方发生的严重雨雪冰冻天气对毛竹林造成严重危害,作者调查了富阳区毛竹林的受灾特征及其影响因子,并在此基础上研究了不同施肥处理对受灾毛竹林恢复生长的影响。结果表明：1）毛竹林受灾程度与其所处的海拔、坡向、坡度、坡位、竹林地土壤厚度等环境因子以及毛竹林林分结构密切相关,其中海拔高度的影响最为显著;2）不同施肥处理对毛竹林恢复生长的影响差异显著,在试验的几个处理中,以在高海拔（500 m）区使用大剂量施肥（生物肥料160 kg/667 m²和复合肥40 kg/667 m²）和在低海拔（300 m）区使用小剂量施肥（生物肥料100 kg/667 m²和复合肥20 kg/667 m²）的新竹产量为高,每年产量分别达到2 243.3 kg/667 m²和2 258.3 kg/667 m²,分别比对照增加65.4%和63.3%;3）高海拔地区的毛竹林因受损严重,在适当施肥后其新竹萌发量比低海拔地区的要高,但立竹直径明显低于低海拔地区。     

Estimating CO(2) flux from snowpacks at three sites in the Rocky Mountains

Soil surface CO(2) flux (F(s)) is the dominant respiratory flux in many temperate forest ecosystems. Snowpacks increase this dominance by insulating the soil against the low temperature to which aboveground components are exposed. However, measurement of F(s) in winter may be impeded by snow cover. Likewise, developing annual F(s) models is complicated by seasonal variation in root and microbial metabolism. We compared three methods of measuring sub-snow F(s): (1) dynamic chamber measurements at the upper snowpack surface (F(snow)), (2) dynamic chamber measurements at the soil surface via snowpits (F(soil)), and (3) static estimates based on measured concentrations of carbon dioxide ([CO(2)]) and conductance properties of the snowpack (F(diffusional)). Methods were compared at a mid-elevation forest in northeastern Washington, a mid-elevation forest in northern Idaho, and a high-elevation forest and neighboring meadow in Wyoming. The methods that minimized snowpack disturbance, F(diffusional) and F(snow), yielded similar estimates of F(s). In contrast, F(soil) yielded rates two to three times higher than F(snow) at the forested sites, and seven times higher at the subalpine meadow. The ratio F(soil)/F(snow) increased with increasing snow depth when compared across all sites. Snow removal appears to induce elevated soil flux as a result of lateral CO(2) diffusion into the pit. We chose F(snow) as our preferred method and used it to estimate annual CO(2) fluxes. The snowpack was present for 36% of the year at this site, during which time 132 g C m(-2), or 17% of the annual flux, occurred. We conclude that snowpack CO(2) flux is quantitatively important in annual carbon budgets for these forests and that the static and dynamic methods yield similar and reasonable estimates of the flux, as long as snowpack disturbance is minimized.     

华北落叶松引种试验的探究

华北落叶松和同龄的长白落叶松相比照,无论是平均胸径、平均树高还是平均材积,前者都落后于后者,现已形成低质低效林分,没有实用价值。因此,应尽快伐除华北落叶松,按照适地适树的原则,采取人工更新恢复森林。     

Species diversity of broad-leaved trees in Cryptomeria japonica plantations in relation to the distance from adjacent broad-leaved forests

The species diversity of broad-leaved trees in relation to the distance from a broad-leaved forest was investigated in Cryptomeria japonica plantations with crown snow damage near the Japan Sea in central Japan. The number and diversity of species and stem density decreased with distance from the broad-leaved forest in maturing gap stands (51–58 years old; >10 years after crown snow damage), but not in recent gap stands (34–42 years old; <10 years after crown snow damage), and increased with improved light conditions in the interior of recent gap stands, but not in that of maturing gap stands. The stem densities of tall and small tree species and woody lianas were greater in the interior of recent gap stands than in maturing gap stands. Woody lianas, which are characteristically shade intolerant, had a high stem density in the interior of recent gap stands. In contrast, the stem density of shrubs was greater in maturing gap stands than in recent gap stands, irrespective of distance. Shade-tolerant shrubs had a high stem density in maturing gap stands. Wind-dispersed and frugivore-dispersed species were concentrated at the edges of maturing gap stands, but some frugivore-dispersed species, which may persist in soil seed banks, occurred in the interior of recent gap stands. Gravity-dispersed species tended to occur both at the plantation edge and in the interior. The differences in the occurrence patterns of broad-leaved trees in the two types of stands reflected the difference in the effect of both the distance from the adjacent broad-leaved forest and the light conditions related to canopy gaps, with the time since gap formation in a region where crown snow damage often occurs.     

冰冻雪压对杉木人工林近成熟林分危害调查

以受冰冻雪灾较为严莺的江西省大岗山林区杉木近成熟林分为研究对象,探讨杉木林分结构和立地条件与杉木受损类型及灾害发生程度的关系,得到几点主要结论:1)冰冻雪压造成大岗山林区杉木受害株数比例达66.84%,受灾相当严重,杉木林分受害类型可分为弯梢、断梢、斜干、断干、倒地及翻蔸等6种,其中断干和断梢为最主要的2种受害类型.2)杉木林分结构对冰冻雪压危害具有明显的调节作用,灾害主要发生于径阶相对较小的林木,林分内径阶越大的林木其受害程度明显越轻;林分密度与受害强度具极显著正相关,密度越高,林分受损株数愈多,且密度主要影响断干、翻蔸这2种不可逆的受损类型,合理的密度调控至关重要.3)杉木林分的立地条件与受害程度紧密相关,高海拔、高坡位、陡坡处的林分更易受到冰冻雪压的危害,较高的立地指数有利于杉木在遭受冰冻雪压灾害时减轻损失.     

The Lintula Larch Forest

The Lintula Larch Forest, also called the Raivola Larch Forest, is one of the most magnificent cultivated forests in northern Europe. It has had a major impact on the cultivation of larch throughout the world, and it became part of the Unesco's World Heritage list in 1991. This article summarizes for the first time to an international audience the establishment, administration and management, stand development and research carried out in Lintula Park. It is based on Russian and Finnish papers and earlier unpublished results. The forest is located 63 km north-west of St Petersburg in the Karelian Isthmus. It was established by order of Peter the Great to supply the Russian fleet with timber for shipbuilding. Ferdinand Gabriel Fockel, a German forest expert, established the oldest stands in 1738–1750 with seed from the Province of Arkhangelsk. Since then the area of the forest has expanded and now the total area of larch stands is 55.9 ha; 23.5 ha of the “old stands” established in 1738–1851 still remain. The Lintula larch stands were famous for their high yield, but part of the reputation was based on small sample plots that were not representative of the stands. However, the high volumes of different tree stands are impressive. For example, in a 255-year-old stand with 339 trees ha^?1 the volume of growing stock was 1284 m³ ha^?1. In small sample plots much higher volumes are found. The average annual growth of the oldest larch stands has never exceeded 6.2–7.2 m³ ha^?1. The volume increment was, however, long-lasting, and annual growth started to decrease only after 148–166 years. Some plots had an increase in yield even at the age of 257 years. The yield of the larches clearly surpassed that of Norway spruce and Scots pine in nearby stands. The Lintula Larch Forest has provided valuable experience on the cultivation of larch. The root system of larch is relatively weak, and it is therefore susceptible to wind damage and rot fungi. An important conclusion drawn from the development of the Lintula Larch Forest is that the cultivation of larch is worthwhile only when grown as pure stands using intensive growing techniques.     

雨雪冰冻灾害对仙居县林木的危害情况调查

2008年3～4月,在仙居县4个乡镇2个国有林场设置了44块标准地对林木受雨雪冰冻灾害情况进行调查,结果认为：在海拔500m以上,雨雪冰冻造成林木腰折、翻蔸与海拔高程无显著相关,杉类、松类、阔叶类各树种间出现腰折、翻蔸有显著差异;腰折、翻蔸木胸高断面积损失率为松木〉阔叶树〉杉木,断梢木胸高断面积受害率为杉木〉阔叶树〉松木,折枝木胸高断面积受害率为阔叶树〉松木〉杉木,正常林木胸高断面积保存率为杉木〉松木及阔叶树．土层浅薄处林木多出现翻蔸,土层深厚处林木多出现腰折．雨雪冰冻对不同坡向、坡位的林木危害无显著差异,但由于微地形条件,不同地块的林木受害程度差异较大．     

Spatially explicit assessment of carbon stocks of a managed forest area in eastern Germany

The Kyoto-protocol permits the accounting of changes in forest carbon stocks due to forestry. Therefore, forest owners are interested in a reproducible quantification of carbon stocks at the level of forest management units and the impact of management to these stocks or their changes. We calculated the carbon stocks in tree biomass and the organic layer including their uncertainties for several forest management units (Tharandt forest, Eastern Germany, 5,500 ha) spatially explicit at the scale of individual stands by using standard forest data sources. Additionally, soil carbon stocks along a catena were quantified. Finally, carbon stocks of spruce and beech dominated stands were compared and effects of thinning intensity and site conditions were assessed. We combined forest inventory and data of site conditions by using the spatial unions of the shapes (i.e., polygons) in the stand map and the site map. Area weighted means of carbon (C) stocks reached 10.0 kg/m2 in tree biomass, 3.0 kg/m2 in the organic layer and 7.3 kg/m2 in mineral soil. Spatially explicit error propagation yielded a precision of the relative error of carbon stocks at the total studied area of 1% for tree biomass, 45% for the organic layer, and 20% for mineral soil. Mature beech dominated stands at the Tharandt forest had higher tree biomass carbon stocks (13.4 kg/m2) and lower organic layer carbon stocks (1.8 kg/m2) compared to stands dominated by spruce (11.6, 3.0 kg/m2). The difference of tree biomass stocks was mainly due to differences in thinning intensity. The additional effect of site conditions on tree carbon stocks was very small. We conclude that the spatially explicit combination of stand scale inventory data with data on site conditions is suited to quantify carbon stocks in tree biomass and organic layer at operational scale.     

Soil factors influencing yields of Eucalyptus camaldulensis on former tin-mining land in the Jos Plateau region,Nigeria

Plantations of Eucalyptus growing on reclaimed tin-minning spoil were compared with similar stands established on undisturbed farmland soils in the north of the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Soils were collected from sample plots in both situations to determine their physical and chemical properties, while destructive harvests of representative stems were used to calculate tree yields.A principal components analysis of the soils data revealed wide variations in texture and base status, and was supported by a cluster analysis from which five major soil groups were defined. One such group, which contained a majority of mining site plots, was characterised by shortages of organic matter and low levels of available phosphorus. Farmland plantation sites had a wider range of texture and fertility, but on the whole gave similar yields to those of mining sites.The relationship between forest yield and selected soil variables was investigated using multiple regression analysis. This showed that the best yields occurred on fine-textured soils with good reserves of organic matter, while moderately base-saturated soils and high available-iron concentrations were associated with poor growth. There were indications that soil chemistry was modified by tree growth, with high-yielding stands increasing cation exchange capacity but significantly lowering soil pH.The implications for future tree growth are discussed, and suggestions given for the improvement of currently derelict mining sites.     

Consideration of strong winds, their directional distribution and snow loading in wind risk assessment related to landscape level forest planning

Forest planning needs to assess various risks that may cause economic or other losses to forest owners. This study aimed at developing a wind risk assessment method, which considers the occurrence and directional distribution of strong winds, and the effect of snow loads and support by neighbouring trees on the expected wind damage. For this purpose, regression models were developed for predicting the critical wind speeds needed to uproot Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch trees at the downwind stand edges in Finnish conditions under unfrozen soil conditions, based on the characteristics of both downwind and upwind stand, and additional snow load on tree crowns. Furthermore, a risk index was developed for the forest landscape, based on the critical wind speeds of stands, occurrence of strong winds and their directional distribution, and the prevailing snow loading in the region. Thereafter, the mean risk index was used as an objective variable in heuristic optimization in forest planning to demonstrate how the optimal cuttings and the spatial layout of the landscape may change depending on the wind and snow conditions and the support that trees provide to each other. Our results show that the directional distribution of strong winds shape the optimal forest landscape structure markedly. Consideration of snow loading in the calculation of critical wind speeds increased the mean risk clearly and produced slightly more aggregated landscape structures in terms of tree height. The consideration of support that neighbouring trees provide to each other had minor effects. To conclude, the consideration of risk of wind induced damages in forest planning calculations clearly affects the selected cutting strategies and impacts the spatial layout of the landscape.     

萧氏松茎象发生与湿地松林地枯落物及土壤物理性质的关系

对萧氏松茎象不同危害程度湿地松林地的枯落物及土壤物理性质比较研究结果表明:枯落物及腐殖质层厚度对萧氏松茎象危害程度的影响最大,其次是枯枝落叶干质量和土壤含水量,枯枝落叶含水率和吸水率影响最小,即枯落物及腐殖质层越厚,枯枝落叶越多,土壤湿度越大的林区,萧氏松茎象发生越重。单因素分析表明:枯落物及腐殖质层厚度、枯枝落叶干质量和土壤质量湿度与有虫株率的相关关系均达到显著水平。萧氏松茎象有虫株率火炬松和马尾松林发生林地明显低于湿地松发生林地。与不发生林地相比,发生林地的土壤更湿润,土壤的保水能力更好,孔隙度更高,石砾含量相对较低。     

土壤水分梯度对阔叶红松林结构的影响

2002年8月,在吉林省白河林业局红石林场(12755E,4230N),沿着一个山坡设置了一个长宽为112m8m、包含14个样方的样带。调查了群落结构、0-10cm和10-20cm的土壤含水量、枯落物现存量及其C、N、P含量,主要树种的叶片和枝条的C、N、P含量。沿着山坡的不同位置土壤含水量的不同导致阔叶红松林的群落结构发生变化。蒙古栎的比例随着土壤含水量的下降而逐渐升高,而其他主要阔叶树种则逐渐减少乃至消失。枯落物的水分变化趋势与土壤一致。在不同坡位枯落物的分解状况不同,干重差异显著。坡下枯落物含量较坡上的丰富,部分原因在于群落结构的变化。水分和养分含量的变化影响了枯落物的成分、降解及其养分的释放,进一步影响了林木的生长速度和林分结构并最终影响整个生态系统。图7表2参14。     

Predicting canopy macrolichen diversity and abundance within old-growth inland temperate rainforests

Windward slopes of the inland mountain ranges in British Columbia support a unique inland temperate rainforest (ITR) ecosystem. Increasing fragmentation and the loss of old ITR stands have highlighted the need for determining conservation biology priorities among remaining old forest stands. We have addressed this issue by surveying foliose macrolichens within 53 old ITR stands in British Columbia's 135,000 ha very wet-cool interior-cedar hemlock (ICHvk2) biogeoclimatic subzone in the upper Fraser River watershed. Study plots were stratified by leading tree species and by “wet” versus “dry” relative soil moisture conditions. Other plot variables included: temperature, precipitation, incident solar loading, and canopy openness. Ordination plots showed a distinct assemblage of foliose cyanolichens, including Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria retigera, Sticta fuliginosa, Nephroma isidiosum, Nephroma occultum, and Pseudocyphellaria anomala, whose abundance was correlated with increasing relative soil moisture, temperature, canopy openness, precipitation, and basal area of spruce. Logistic regression models similarly identified relative soil moisture and temperature in all parsimonious models. Leading tree species, in combination with “wet” relative soil moisture and/or temperature, were important factors explaining the presence or absence of five (Cavernularia hultenii, L. retigera, N. occultum, Platismatia norvegica, and Sticta oroborealis) of the eight modeled old-growth associate lichen species. This combination of conditions favouring the development of canopy lichen communities in old forests was best expressed in low elevation water receiving sites. We hypothesize that groundwater availability in these sites promotes species richness and abundance of canopy lichens by creating more favourable conditions for growth, and by reducing fire return intervals which allows for the accumulation of rare species over time. Historically, forests in these wet “toe-slope” positions were disproportionately targeted for logging. Their conservation should now be a high priority, given their disproportionate significance to maintaining canopy lichen diversity in the present-day landscapes.     

Modelling probability of snow and wind damage in Scots pine stands using tree characteristics

Predictions of damage risk from snow and wind at sites using tree characteristics of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), were made using a subset of data from permanent sample plots within the Swedish National Forest Inventory (NFI). The plots were sampled twice at five-year intervals between 1983 and 1992. A logistic risk assessment model was developed using data originating from 286 plots, dominated by Scots pine (> 65% of basal area), within one county situated in the boreal zone in northern Sweden (Västerbotten). The model was evaluated with NFI-data from two other counties, one adjacent to Västerbotten (Västermorrland, 99 plots), which is also in the boreal zone, and one (Kalmar, 138 plots) in the hemi-boreal zone in southern Sweden. In each plot, measurements at first inventory of tree characteristics for the largest undamaged sample tree, and measurements at second inventory of damage from snow and wind on all sample trees were used to develop a logistic model that predicts the damage probability for each site. The best predictors were upper diameter (ud, diameter at 3 or 5 m) and the ratio of height/diameter at breast height (rhd). According to the model calculations, the overall damage probability never exceeded 0.26 for any of the sample plots used for model development. At a given ud the probability of damage is higher for a site with trees of low rhd. The fit of the model was better for the adjacent Västernorrland county than for the southern county, Kalmar. This inferior predictability was explained by differences in tree characteristics between Kalmar and the other counties. The results show that it is possible to predict damage from snow and wind at a site by using only single tree characteristics.     

Ecosystem fragmentation of oak-pine forest in the New Jersey Pinelands

Structure and composition of the woody vegetation of 35 oak-pine forest stands in the New Jersey Pinelands are described. Nineteen of these stands were forest fragments isolated from the main forested area of the Pinelands. Gradients in composition were related to longitude, latitude, elevation, soil moisture, disturbance and wildfires. Species number was directly related to area and isolation in the forest fragments. Density, diversity and richness of saplings and trees were higher in the fragments than in the non-isolated stands. Sassafras albidum in particular had a significantly higher abundance in the forest fragments in both the tree and sapling layers. The differences in sapling layers between fragments and continuous forest, and between layers within fragments, suggest that ecosystem fragmentation may have a significant impact on vegetation dynamics in Pinelands oak-pine forests.