The Lower Rio Grande Valley: a case study of a water market area

The Lower Rio Grande Valley is a sub-tropical area with a productive irrigated agriculture, but with an over-committed single water resource. It is experiencing a rapidly growing population that is placing increasing pressure on the water resource. This, combined with expanding urban areas and land moving out of agriculture, has resulted in a vigorous water market, with transfers from agriculture to municipal uses. For the US portion of the valley, transfers from agriculture to municipalities are either short-term (usually 1 year) or permanent. Prices vary depending upon the location and timing, and result from negotiations between the parties. Over time, and not without difficulty, the water market has been facilitated by appropriate enabling legislation, water rights that have been validated judicially, and an efficient transfer mechanism that has a minimum of transaction cost. Government involvement is primarily for protection of the public, and to facilitate the transfer process.

The price elasticity of transferring agricultural water to industrial water during non-drought period in Taiwan

In this study, the demand function for the transferring agricultural water to industrial water during non-drought period covering from January 1998 to December 2008 in Taiwan was estimated, and the water usage statistics derived from the short-term water charge agreements, regarding the charging of water management fees and water usage fees from the irrigation associations, were applied to the estimation in the empirical model. The results of the research are presented as follows: (a) the demand for transferring agricultural water into industrial water is non-elastic; the price elasticity is −0.368; (b) the transferred water volume decreases when the water price rises; (c) the transferred water volume also decreases when the wholesale price index of domestic products rises; (d) the buyer’s industry classification was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (e) the different title of transferred water including: “building utilization cost” or that in “costs for enhanced irrigation management” was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (f) type of repository of irrigation association for transferred water was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (g) whether irrigation association enhances irrigation management was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (h) the source of transferred water was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (i) the method for water transfer was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand; (j) more water transferred by the industry when the total population of Taiwan increases; (k) the transferred water volume rises when the groundwater level of the water transferred area rises; and (l) the areas for water transferred was the significant factor influencing the transfer water demand.     

安溪铁观音成本-价格调查分析

福建是乌龙茶的原产地,安溪铁观音是乌龙茶精品。本文以安溪铁观音茶农户、茶叶企业、中国茶都-安溪茶叶交易市场等实地考察为依据,对安溪铁观音茶叶生产成本与价格进行了深入细致地调查分析。分析表明：安溪铁观音生产成本构成复杂,包括鲜叶种植成本、初加工成本、精加工成本;在各项成本中,鲜叶生产成本最高;在总成本中,人工成本所占的比例最大。而在价格的调查分析中发现,茶农户的毛茶价格远比茶叶批发商和茶叶店零售价格低,销售成本占销售价格的比例很大。     

Study on agricultural benefits by increasing capacity of water ponds: a case study at Taoyuan paddy fields

In Taiwan, agricultural water is frequently reduced or suspended for reallocation of water resources during drought. To cope with such a situation, the irrigation district of the Shihmen Reservoir in the northern Taiwan fully utilizes the functions of water ponds to regulate water resources, so that industrial and domestic water demands can be met. Constructing new water ponds is indeed able to increase water storage for irrigation. However, when it is compared with the method of dredging or excavating the existing water ponds, constructing new water ponds is not easily accepted by the public because of environmental protection and land acquisition. Dredging water ponds is adopted to obtain a larger storage capacity, so that more flexibility may be acquired in water allocation during drought. Furthermore, it is more practical from engineering point of view. This study presents a formulation of the pond-dredging problem for an irrigation system. The formulation is implemented as optimization programs and applied to the area irrigated by the eighth lateral of the Taoyuan Irrigation Association. The irrigation area is a paddy field of 2,283.8 hectares and consists of 32 water ponds storage capacity of which is analyzed as dredging is conducted. Two models are presented; the first minimizes the water extracted from the Reservoir in a cropping season; while the second maximizes agricultural financial net benefits. Various allowable dredging ratios are used in the two models for different case studies. The first model shows that the water supplied by the Reservoir decreases as the ratio increases, and it reaches the minimum (2,520.3?×?10⁴m³) when the ratio is 0.5. The second model displays that the maximum agricultural financial net benefit increases as the ratio increases and it reaches the highest value (NT$ 6,996?×?10⁴) when the ratio is 0.5, a result similar to that of the first model. However, the dredging priorities of 32 water ponds for the two models are different because of the optimization objectives. The simulation results provide references to the performance improvement of water ponds. With such improvement, water ponds can possess an optimal capacity, and an optimal regional water allocation during drought can be achieved.     

Measuring the implicit value of paddy irrigation water: application of RPML model to the contingent choice experiment data in Japan

For efficient use of water as a limited resource, evaluation on the water value is critical, but there is little information in Asian paddy irrigation. This paper proposes the method for measuring implicit price of paddy irrigation water by using the choice experiment (CE) data with contingent scenarios. Empirical results demonstrated that (a) the estimated implicit price of water showed reasonable value as compared to the production indexes, (b) the random parameter multinomial logit model was more suitable than the conventional multinomial logit model to treat the CE data, and (c) the implicit price is much lower than the full cost price, indicating that full cost pricing probably damages and ruins rice production too seriously in Japan. As seen above, the method proposed here is useful for decision making on water pricing policies and easy to apply to different irrigation systems under limited data of water value.

Field Crop Production in Areas with Saline Soils and Shallow Saline Groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley of California

SUMMARY

Salinity in soil and water is irrevocably associated with irrigated agriculture throughout the world and as a result requires that salt management becomes an integral part of the production system. With careful water management, it is possible to sustain irrigated agriculture in areas with saline soil and saline groundwater with and without subsurface drainage. The results from two field projects conducted in an area with saline soils and saline groundwater demonstrated the type of irrigation systems and management needed to sustain production of moderately salt tolerant and tolerant crops. During the first study at Murrieta farms, yields of cotton and sugar beet were maintained using both saline and non-saline water for irrigation when pre-plant irrigation and rainfall were adequate to maintain soil salinity at a tolerable level. Wheat production was reduced in areas that used saline water for irrigation. Use of saline water containing toxic elements such as boron for irrigation poses a threat to the sustainability of the system. The second study evaluated the management of furrow and subsurface drip irrigation in the presence of shallow saline groundwater. Careful management of the furrow system during pre-plant irrigation and the first irrigation of the growing season was required to prevent waterlogging. It was possible to manage the subsurface drip system to induce significant crop water use from shallow groundwater. Rainfall and pre-plant irrigation were adequate at this site to manage soil salinity.     

福鼎白茶成本-价格调查分析

白茶是中国乃至世界的珍稀茶类,中国是世界白茶的唯一产地,福鼎是中国白茶最重要的产地之一,其白茶产量占中国白茶的70％以上.近年来,随着人们对绿色食品的呼声日益高涨,白茶简单、自然而生态的加工工艺越来越受到欢迎,那么白茶的成本-价格到底是怎样的？本文以福鼎市白茶产地实地考察为依据,对福鼎白茶的茶农户、茶叶加工企业、茶叶交易市场等进行了实地调查,在此基础上对福鼎白茶的生产成本-价格进行深入分析,结果表明：（1）福鼎白茶生产成本包括鲜叶种植成本、初加工成本、精加工成本,其中鲜叶种植成本占总成本的重要部分,加工成本（初加工＋精加工）低;在生产成本中主要是人工费用.（2）福鼎白茶的产地批发价格较低,一般略高于成本价格;而福鼎白茶市场售价比批发价格高出1倍以上,茶商销售到外地价格会上涨5倍以上;茶农户、茶企业、茶叶商相比较,茶农户获利最少,茶叶企业和茶叶商获利最多,甚至利润高达几百倍,茶商利用别人不了解白茶有价格炒作趋势,白茶几乎是一本万利.     

Increasing Water Productivity in Rice-Based Systems in Asia – Past Trends,Current Problems,and Future Prospects

Abstract

Bioethanol is gathering attention as a countermeasure to global warming and as an alternative energy for gasoline. Meanwhile, due to the synchronous increase in bioethanol production and grain prices, the food-fuel competition has become a public issue. It is necessary to see the issue objectively and to recognize that the real background is the change in allocation of limited resources such as farmland and water. In this review, we discuss which, where and how energy crops shouldbe grown to establish a sustainable bioethanol production system. Several combinations of crops, areas and cultivation methods are recommended as a result of a survey of the bioethanol production system with various energy crops. In tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane can be grown in agricultural and/or unused favorable lands. In other regions, cellulosic energy crops can be grown in abandoned and marginal lands, including lands contaminated with inorganic pollutant like heavy metals and some detrimental minerals. There also is the possibility that, for Japan and other Asian countries, rice can be grown as an energy crop in unused lowland paddy field. Regarding cultivation way, energy saving is beneficial for bioethanol production systems irrespective of energy efficiency. On the other hand, effective energy input should be consideredfor the systems with higher energy efficiency when available land area is limited. Exploring and developing new energy crops and varieties, which show higher biomass productivity and stress tolerances under marginal conditions, are necessary for sustainable bioethanol production because energy crop production would be restricted mostly to marginal areas in future.     

中国智慧茶业概况与发展思考

近年,在我国政策利好、信息技术发展空前、产业跨界高度融合的大环境下催生了智慧农业。茶产业作为我国山区农业支柱产业和中华文化重要载体,宏观研判处于黄金发展战略机遇期,以茶叶数字化品控、智慧茶园、AI技术精细茶叶加工、RFID防伪溯源、智慧茶馆等为代表的智慧茶业业态初现。鉴于此,笔者深度思考智慧茶业未来发展,提出了基于产业端的思考——茶产业树、基于消费端思考——茶馆APP和基于茶资源应用端——全价利用与跨界开发的发展路径,形成“智慧树”概念。     

Die Rolle der Ertragssteigerung im Anpassungsprozess der Landwirtschaft

Measures undertaken in the Federal Republic of Germany to rationalize agricultural production, viz. a reduction of intensive farming, simplification of farm production methods, and the introduction of specialization and mechanization, have been carried to their near completion in modern agricultural holdings. It is now necessary to introduce a new overriding economic principle if we are to successfully meet further wage increases and price reductions and improve the income level of the agricultural population. A new farm management concept based on the idea of a radical increase in specific intensive production methods is now being developed. In view of the high fixed costs in West German agriculture, the degression of fixed costs per production unit outweights the progression of variable costs when output is increased. In other words, higher yields per hectare and animal effect a decrease in unit costs. Nitrogen fertilizer being the most important factor in output increase, its profitable level is examined by means of six marginal value analyses. The fertilizer optimum is reached when marginal costs and marginal yields balance each other out. In all six examples this optimum coincides almost exactly with the point of maximum yield per hectare. This simplifies the problem considerably, at least under the conditions established for six examples. The optimal input level of nitrogen fertilizer does not have to be determined by means of a complicated marginal value analysis. It lies just under the maximum yield per hectare. We cannot expect that price-cost alterations will push this fertilizer optimum up within the near future. However, we may assume that new possibilities will open up for nitrogen fertilizer. In the first place, the majority of the agricultural holdings are still a long way from having reached the fertilizer optimum now economically feasible. Secondly, the present level of fertilizer optimum is constantly being raised as the result of technological advances. It is the task of economic counselling to achieve the fullexploitation of available earning power resources and the task of scientific research todevelop new earning power resources. The exploitation and the development of earning power resources can have very positive results in the case of inorganic fertilizer, since through its application it is possible to even out income disparities in agriculture

—help small holdings in particular, mineral fertilizer being a divisible input factor

—come closer to a solution of the central probrem of the agriculture of the Federal

—Republic of germany, that of combining high labour productivity with high soil productivity.

     

Estimation of evaporation from arid-irrigated region using MODIS satellite imagery

For sustainable development of irrigated agriculture in arid regions, improvement of water use efficiency is essentially required to maintain current production levels and meet food and fiber for population growth in future. To achieve high water use efficiency, a key consideration is to reduce unnecessary soil water loss due to evaporation. In this article, regional daily evaporation over Hetao Irrigation District in a typical arid region during the irrigation period of 2009 was determined by a developed maximum surface temperature model combining Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery. The results showed that maximum land surface temperature (LST) from MODIS satellite imagery was relatively higher in the western and middle parts than that of the eastern part of the district. At the same time, the mean minimum LST was shown somewhat higher in the eastern part. Mean daily evaporation was relatively higher in the eastern part, which showed water consuming is higher in the eastern part of the district. During the irrigation period of 2009, the total income water (irrigation water and rainfall) amount is 590.3 mm, and the outcome water (drainage discharge and evaporation) amount is 497.5 mm. The surplus of 92.8 mm in the irrigated season is considered to be consumed in winter season. Throughout the irrigated season, income and outcome almost equals each other. The daily evaporation distribution map could specify particular water consuming areas over the district where high daily evaporation may be occurred.     

Quantifying pesticide overuse from farmer and societal points of view: An application to Thailand

The rapid growth in pesticide use is a significant problem for Thailand, as it is in many other developing countries with an intensifying agriculture. The objective of this study was to quantify how much of the total quantity of pesticides is overused. The novelty of this research resides in the fact that it considered the social rather than the private optimum by including negative pesticide externalities in determining levels of overuse. Marginal benefits of pesticides are quantified by estimating Cobb–Douglas production functions with an exponential damage control specification. The marginal costs are calculated as the sum of private and external costs with the latter quantified using the Pesticide Environmental Accounting (PEA) tool. The method is applied using farm- and plot-level data from one intensive upland vegetable production system in northern Thailand. The findings show that about 80% of the applied pesticide quantity is used in excess of the social optimum, while the difference between the private and social level of overuse is small for this particular case study. Therefore results from the study area suggest that internalizing pesticide externalities into the price of pesticides would only have a small effect on reducing pesticide overuse.     

广东水稻生产成本收益比较分析

以2004-2014年广东水稻成本收益数据为基础,采用成本收益比较法分析了年际间、品种间、区域间水稻成本收益,以及水稻与经济作物的成本收益情况。分析结果显示,近10年来广东水稻生产成本以年均10%的速度增长;稻谷价格上涨幅度远低于生产成本涨幅,导致水稻种植效益持续走低、甚至亏损,尤其是单位面积净利润和成本利润率低于全国平均水平,也大大低于蔬菜、水果、花生等经济作物。笔者认为,广东水稻生产收益偏低的主要原因是规模经营程度低、成本高,因而,提高水稻种植效益的根本途径是发展适度规模经营,提高机械化作业水平。     

On-farm impacts of zero tillage wheat in South Asia's rice–wheat systems

The recent slow down in productivity growth in the irrigated areas of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia has led to a quest for resource-conserving technologies that can reduce production costs, save water and improve production. Findings from farm surveys are used to evaluate the on-farm impacts of zero tillage (ZT) wheat in the rice–wheat systems of India's Haryana state and Pakistan's Punjab province. ZT-induced effects primarily apply to the establishment and production costs of the wheat crop. Both study sites confirmed significant ZT-induced resource-saving effects in farmers’ fields in terms of diesel, tractor time and cost savings for wheat cultivation. Water savings are, however, less pronounced than expected from on-farm trial data. It was only in Haryana, India that there were significant ZT-induced water savings in addition to significant yield enhancement. The higher yield and water savings in Haryana, India result in significantly higher water productivity indicators for ZT wheat. In both sites, there are limited implications for the overall wheat crop management, the subsequent rice crop and the rice–wheat system as a whole. The combination of a significant “yield effect” and “cost-saving effect” makes adoption worthwhile and provide a much needed boost to the returns to wheat cultivation in Haryana, India. In Punjab, Pakistan, ZT is primarily a cost-saving technology for wheat cultivation. The prime driver for ZT adoption is not water savings or natural resource conservation but monetary gain in both sites. Water savings are only a potential added benefit.     

Cost sharing and sustainability of Pongsak Muang Fai irrigation system

The centuries-old, self-organizing Muang Fai community irrigation institution in northern Thailand has high potential in illustrating exemplary practices in irrigation cost sharing. This paper examines the cost sharing structure of the Pongsak Muang Fai Irrigation System in Mae Hong Son Province and its relationship with the system water management and sustainability. Results show that this primitive and high cost system accepts costs of the weir, the entire length of main ditch, not only the individually related ditch sections, and the management as common costs that should be equally shared so that it can gather sizeable membership to support the system. The capacity of this small scale run-of-the-river irrigation system with no river flow limitation is a simple summation of all determined farm intake capacities. The maintenance cost of the system every year depends on how much water should be diverted and conveyed, hence the use of “relative” scale of each farm intake capacity as the basis for sharing cost in the wet season paddy farming. Such structure is directly related to the water management under which every intake shall be served with continuous supply without permitting mid-canal water check-up and the members prefer to take collective action to keep enough water supply without leaving any room for suspicion of unfair water distribution. The direct relationship makes the members understand the purpose of payment and be willing to share the costs which are transparently estimated in easily understood terms and clearly de-aggregated into categories.     

Implications of rising costs of registering agrochemicals

The increased number and complexity of the requirements for registration of agrochemicals are causing a steep rise in the costs of research and development and therefore in the price of agrochemicals. It now takes about 8–9 years for an agrochemical to be developed and marketed, at a probable cost of 10–20 million US dollars, and each of the individual tests required may cost up to US$ 500 000. A continuation of these trends would have serious consequences for industry, farmers, consumers and the developing countries. So far, the agrochemical industry has been able to continue to produce the new and improved materials necessary to combat changing pest attack: whether it can continue to do so may depend upon whether or not registration requirements are increased. Unnecessary requirements must be identified and eliminated, and any new demands must be fully justified in terms of the cost involved and of the ensuing benefits. However, if the search for greater safety were to be pushed to even greater lengths, so that costs exceed what the market will bear, the extra costs would have to be borne by the authorities and, ultimately, by the taxpayer.     

Multifunctionality of paddy fields in Taiwan

Paddy rice is the staple food in Taiwan, where rice farming always plays an important role in agricultural activities. The paddy fields and irrigation activities hold diversified functions, such as production, eco-environmental and living-associated functions. This paper is to provide information regarding the potential magnitude and monetary value of seven functions of paddy fields in Taiwan, including flood mitigation, fostering water resources, preventing soil erosion, purifying water, cooling air temperature, refreshing atmosphere and recreation. For quantification of the above values, replacement cost method (RCM), contingent valuation method (CVM), and the travel cost method (TCM) are adopted. In addition, the ratio of monetary value and their rice production commodity value (R) was also estimated. The results indicated that the flood mitigation function had a monetary value of US$ 389 million each year, and the ratio to the rice production value R was estimated at 37%. Water resource fostering function was US$ 501 million and R at 47%; soil erosion reduction function was US$ 433 million and R at 41%; water quality purification function was US$ 3 million and R at 0.3%; cooling air temperature function was US$ 961 million and R at 91%; refreshing air function was US$ 196 million and R at 19%, health and recreation function was US$ 987 million and R at 93%, respectively. Due to the significant importance of these externalities, it is recommended that the government should properly take into account the multifunctionalities in policy making to ensure sustainable development of agriculture.     

Potential biodiesel markets and their economic effects on the agricultural sector of the United States

This analysis estimates potential US biodiesel demand in three specific markets that the US biodiesel industry has identified as likely candidates for commercialization: federal fleets, mining, and marine/estuary areas. If a 20% biodiesel blend becomes a competitive alternative fuel in the future, these markets could demand as much as 379 Ml of biodiesel. The Food and Agricultural Policy Simulator, an econometric model of US agriculture, was used to estimate the impacts of 76, 189, and 379 Ml of soybean-oil-based biodiesel production on the agricultural sector of the United States. The results indicate that the increased demand for soybean oil would increase US soybean oil price by as much as 14.1%. Corresponding to this price change, US soybean price would rise 2.0% and soybean meal price would fall by 3.3%. US net farm income would increase by as much as 0.3%.     

Soil fertility management in irrigated rice systems in the Sahel and Savanna regions of West Africa: Part II. Profitability and risk analysis

In irrigated rice production in West Africa, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers make up about 20% of total production costs. This research seeks to evaluate whether those fertilizers are profitable under current use by farmers and to identify the factors that may improve fertilizer efficiency and profitability. A combination of farmer surveys and on-farm trials were used to determine actual fertilizer use, costs, and net revenues from fertilizer in key irrigated systems in Mali (Office du Niger), Burkina Faso (Kou Valley), and Senegal (Thiagar and Guédé). A second paper provides an agronomic analysis of soil fertility management at these sites. Net returns to fertilizer use were estimated and value/cost ratios (VCRs) calculated. A value/cost ratio of 1.5–2.0 was considered desirable for farmer adoption under West African conditions. Average VCRs for fertilizers ranged from 1.6 in the Kou Valley in Burkina Faso, to 3.6 in the Office du Niger, Mali. In researcher-managed on-farm trials in Thiagar, Senegal, fertilizers had VCRs of 1.5–3.1. Large N doses of 180 kg N ha⁻¹ still had VCRs of 2.5. Farmers in the region used less than recommended doses of N, with the exception of farmers in the Office du Niger, Mali. With an average application of 89 kg N ha⁻¹, farmers in Thiagar, Senegal were able to gain 54 000 FCFA ha⁻¹ (US$ 110) of net revenues from the fertilizers with fertilizer N recovery rates averaging 34%. Improving that recovery rate by 50% could increase net revenues by 50%. In field trials in Thiagar, increasing N application to 180 kg ha⁻¹ resulted in net returns of near 200 000 FCFA ha⁻¹ for an investment of 118 000 FCFA ha⁻¹. Risk of negative net returns was found in Thiagar and in Kou Valley, and was related to weed infestation and water scarcity, respectively. Farmers in the dry season in Kou Valley had a 33% probability of net losses with fertilizer application because of unreliable water supply. In contrast, no farmers had negative returns in the Office du Niger inspite of high N application rates. Farmers can improve profitability and economic efficiency in irrigated rice production in two ways. First, they can modify crop management practices (date of seeding, date and mode of fertilizer application, etc.) in order to improve the recovery rate of applied N, thus relaxing the nitrogen fertilizer constraint. Second, for farmers able to purchase additional fertilizer, there are gains to be made by increasing applied nitrogen at least to recommended levels in most areas. Credit allocations that restrict fertilizer purchases are counterproductive given the profitability of fertilizers. Negative returns were found only in areas with high risks of water scarcity or weed infestation. Researchers and development agents need to develop more site-specific fertilizer recommendations that correspond to weather, cultivars, prices of inputs and outputs, and fertilizer products.     

Individual lift irrigation: a case study in the Cau Son irrigation and drainage area, Red River Basin, Vietnam

The irrigation trend in Asia has been characterised as a shift from gravity to lift irrigation, but the importance of individual lift irrigation using surface water remains to be documented. Surveys on field water application by farmers using lift were undertaken in three sites and across the 44,600 ha Cau Son irrigation and drainage area in the spring crop season. Lift irrigation was found to be practised by 82 % of households. The main lift technology was mechanical pump (petrol and electric), followed by traditional swing and long-handle baskets. The main source for lifting was on-farm canals. Although gravity irrigation was the dominant field application method, the area solely irrigated by individual lift ranged from 25 to 52 % of the irrigated areas. Scaling up from the sites, individual lift accounted for 29 % by irrigation area and volume, with 17 and 12 % attributed to mechanical and manual lift. The application of mechanical pumps was a response to locally high-field elevations and significantly increased with the distance of water delivery from the main canal. The impact of mechanical pumping on flexibility and reliability was significant and positive. Petrol driven pumps had relatively high operational and investment costs, but farmers gained higher flexibility and reliability and compensated by applying less water. Farmers using electric pumps applied significantly more water and thereby wasted electric energy as a compensation for uncertain electric power supply. The importance of individual lift irrigation suggests that it should be explicitly considered in irrigation management policies and performance assessments.