Place,memory and identity: Imagining ‘New Asia’

Abstract: The rapid transformation of Asian societies and landscapes, especially since the mid‐1990s, has engendered much conjecture of the ‘Asian renaissance’ and the rise of a ‘New Asia’. This Special Edition of Asia Pacific Viewpoint explores the intersecting themes of ‘urban place’, ‘social memory’ and ‘cultural identity’ in the articulation of and contestation towards New Asia. Specifically, the six articles here offer various interpretations of New Asia – as tourism marketing tool, political vision and social identity – and the politics involved in urban, tourism and cultural development. From colonial hotels in key South‐East Asian cities to the historic waterfront of Singapore; from festivals and rituals in Hong Kong, Hoi An (Vietnam) and Penang (Malaysia) to the clash of cultural values in Manggarai (Indonesia), ‘selective remembering’ and ‘ideological forgetting’ are central to the construction of New Asian identities. Ultimately, this Special Edition hopes to provoke continuing discussions on the rhetoric of New Asia and its imaginative and contested geographies, sociologies and histories.     

Negotiating ‘home’ and ‘national identity’: Chinese‐Malaysian transmigrants in Singapore

Abstract: Part of the globalisation phenomenon involves an increasing number of elite transmigrants traversing national boundaries in response to the global demand for skilled labour while maintaining multifaceted social ties astride political, geographic and cultural borders, linking home and host countries together. As transmigrants ‘live’ in several communities simultaneously, their identities, behaviour and values are often not limited by location. Thus, notions of ‘home’ and ‘national identity’ are also being reviewed given the discrepancies between these concepts and locality. In this context, this paper explores questions of ‘home’ and ‘national identity’ among skilled Chinese‐Malaysians working and residing in Singapore, portraying them as active participants of two (or more) countries. It focuses on their strategies and struggles in negotiating ideologies of ‘home’ and ‘national identities’ across borders in a setting of two neighbouring countries umbilically linked in a volatile political relationship. It further examines their degree of concern in the political affairs of both countries. Between ‘home’ and ‘host’, Chinese‐Malaysians redefine their practices of home(‐making) in relation to their national identity, drawing on the resources and resilience of familial ties, nostalgic memories and other practical lifecourse needs.     

Performing ‘Chinese‐ness’ in Singkawang: Diasporic moorings,festivals and tourism

Through an examination of two festivals – Qing Ming and Cap Go Meh – in the town of Singkawang in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), we show how Singkawang‐bound Chinese Indonesian tourists and their Singkawang‐based relatives produce a diasporic heritage network through ‘moorings’ generated by both transnational and internal migration. Instead of returning to a singular ‘homeland’ in distant China, these tourists return to Chinese‐majority Singkawang as a result of their personal genealogical roots and of their broader cultural allegiance with a kind of Chinese‐ness that Singkawang has come to represent within a post‐Suharto Indonesia. Through these two festivals, we demonstrate how personal heritage practices like ‘roots tourism’ and visiting friends and relatives are intimately bound up with identity and developmental politics at local, national and international scales. In so doing, we identify a range of ways in which migratory and tourism flows by Chinese Indonesian internal migrants shape relations to their ancestral hometowns and cultural ‘homelands’ in Indonesia within the context of membership to and participation in a broader transnational diaspora.     

Openings in the body of ‘capitalism’: Capital flows and diverse economic possibilities in Kiribati

Much of the post‐development agenda is concerned with decoupling Eurocentric imaginings of development from development practices in ‘remote’ regions and exploring new forms of economy that can enhance local well‐being. In the South Pacific (and elsewhere), small peripheral economies have confronted globalisation in varying ways. Some places, such as the Micronesian island state of Kiribati, have engaged directly with the global economy by investing capital generated locally in international financial markets rather than in domestic industries. Kiribati's trust fund, the Revenue Equalisation Reserve Fund, maintains a balanced portfolio of international equity and fixed income assets that produces a financial return, helping to augment Kiribati's other national income sources. In this paper we explore the results of capital flowing from Kiribati to global financial markets, noting that this alternative development practice can enhance local well‐being.     

The geographic impact of ‘open skies’ policies on Trans‐Tasman air passenger service

Abstract: The goal of this paper is to examine the various geographic shifts occurring in New Zealand air passenger service as a result of the liberal aviation policies pursued by the country. A brief history of New Zealand air passenger travel both domestically and internationally will be followed by a more in‐depth investigation into the impacts of the single aviation market between New Zealand and Australia, first negotiated in 1992, subsequently altered in 1996 and, in its present form, agreed to in 2000. Particular attention is given to the increased competition that has arisen in the Trans‐Tasman market, making it one of the most heavily contested routes in global aviation. The Trans‐Tasman is analysed at a variety of levels, including airline competition, market growth, and fare changes that have occurred in the five years since the ‘full open skies’ agreement came into effect.     

Asset mapping and Whanau action research: ‘New’ subjects negotiating the politics of knowledge in Te Rarawa

Te Runanga o Te Rarawa is the tribal council representing the interests of the marae (tribal commons) and hapu (a subtribal kin group) that make up the iwi (a Maori tribe) of Te Rarawa in the far north of Aotearoa/New Zealand. In April 2005, officials approached us to help them secure a valuable funding stream tagged to marshalling resources for material development in the area. They sought curriculum vitae and assistance in reframing the funding specifications. Intrigued, armed with a conceptual toolkit drawn from Gibson‐Graham's ideas of post‐development and asset‐based community mapping, and confident that we could add value, we agreed to help. This paper examines the complex politics of our involvement and our changing positioning as researcher subjects. We argue that negotiating a politics of knowledge for projects of this nature requires engagement in complex representational politics of place and divisive identity politics that rage around it. There are no easy protocols for outside researchers, but with appropriate humility and sensitivity to these politics, we can rely on, and should stand up for, the value of our work, which lies in commitments to excellence in scholarship. We cannot and should not seek to control these politics, which will chew us up and spit us out – humanely and with good grace or otherwise. However, good academic work will recognise and adapt to them. In our particular case, we argue that our work had significant value; and in this paper, we trace the production of this value.     

Researching ‘sustainable consumption’ in Asia‐Pacific cities

Abstract: Asia‐Pacific cities are experiencing substantial environmental problems, which require innovative policy approaches. One newly emergent policy strand is that of ‘sustainable consumption’. This approach aims to reduce environmental degradation by encouraging all consumers to adopt more environmentally friendly modes of behaviour, especially those living in congested and environmentally degraded urban areas. Although a promising initiative, significant conceptual and practical problems exist with sustainable consumption's current policy framework. However, rather than abandon the idea completely, consumption should become central to researching environmental issues in Asia‐Pacific cities. Here, a ‘political ecology’ approach frames all forms of consumption as revealing political, economic and cultural practices and modes of distributions that give rise to current unsustainable outcomes. Through in‐depth examinations of current forms of consumption, this approach aims to offer a challenging perspective for future research into Asia‐Pacific urban environmental problems.     

The imported underclass: poverty and social exclusion of black African refugees in Aotearoa New Zealand

Abstract: Changes in immigration and refugee policy since 1991 have led to an increasing number of minority ethnic groups settling in Aotearoa New Zealand. The number of Black African migrants and refugees granted permanent residence in New Zealand has increased substantially from about six in 1982 to over 770 in 1998 (New Zealand Immigration Services, 2001). The socio‐economic, professional and cultural characteristics of this emerging Black African minority ethnic community are complex but fascinating. In mid 2000 the majority of the Black African community in New Zealand were refugees ( Chile 1999A ). This paper is part of a broader study to analyse the nature and structure of Black African migration and settlement in New Zealand. It is an attempt to undertake applied migration research from a participatory methodology framework that addresses the expressed needs of the grass‐roots level client community. The paper examines the socio‐economic status of Black African refugees in New Zealand and analyses the factors and processes that create an impoverished community that is increasingly excluded from mainstream society. Strategies to reverse the process of marginalisation and create a healthy, vibrant community with the capacity to participate effectively in New Zealand society are examined.     

Understanding ‘resource’ conflicts in Papua New Guinea

Abstract: Papua New Guinea, with its heavy dependence on natural resources, limited economic development in the past two decades, poor record of governance and high‐profile separatist conflicts such as the Bougainville civil war, appears to be an exemplar of the ‘Resource Curse’ theory – the notion that natural resources actively undermine economic development. Using a number of examples from a range of scales, this paper argues that what appear to be ‘resource’ conflicts in Papua New Guinea are actually better conceived as conflicts around identity and social relationships. The very different conceptualisation of natural resources in most Melanesian societies – as elements of the social world as much as any external environmental sphere – means that resources become a conduit for local social and political agendas and tensions to be expressed. The nature of traditional conflict in Melanesian societies is discussed as a guide to the better management and resolution of what appear to be ‘resource’ conflicts in Papua New Guinea.     

Examining trans‐Tasman migration of new immigrants to New Zealand from the People's Republic of China: A quantitative approach

‘Back‐door’ migration refers to the entry of overseas‐born New Zealand citizens to Australia. Many New Zealand Chinese migrants from the People's Republic of China (PRC) are within this migration flow. Based on a detailed analysis on the permanent and long‐term arrival and departure data from Statistics New Zealand and an online survey conducted by the author, this paper examines the trans‐Tasman migration of New Zealand's PRC migrants. The result shows that compared with New Zealand‐born citizens, the trans‐Tasman migration of China‐born New Zealand citizens is not large in number. The 2001 Australia immigration policy change of the welfare provisions to New Zealand citizens discouraged ‘back‐door’ migration of the PRC migrants in the short term only. Australia still remains a favoured destination for many of them. Economic consideration is the main factor drawing these migrants to Australia. This paper also reveals a circulatory feature of the PRC migrants' trans‐Tasman migratory movements, as evidenced by a significant number of respondents who had migrated from New Zealand to Australia indicating that they would come back to New Zealand at some future time.     

Roasted pigs and bao dumplings: Festive food and imagined transnational identity in Chinese–Vietnamese festivals

Abstract: This article explores the ways by which special dishes prepared for the Chinese community festivals in the Vietnamese town of Hoi An negotiate and expand the notions of ethnic identity and place of origin of migrant groups. Although the festivals stress specific regional identities in (Imperial) China, the food consumed in the communal feasts defines much wider scopes of ethnicity and territory. By discussing these alternative scopes and comparing the feasts in two festivals, the article suggests that a new transnational ‘greater‐Chinese’ identity is celebrated in contemporary Chinese‐Vietnamese community festivals. The scope and importance of this new identity is analysed in relation to an imagined ‘greater‐China’ as a dominant player in the forthcoming ‘Pacific Century’. The position of the culinary sphere as a privileged arena for sociocultural negotiation, especially in post‐socialist authoritarian regimes, is also discussed.     

The ‘street politics’ of migrant il/legality: Navigating Malaysia's urban borderscape

Immigration control constitutes a particular technique for regulating urban space and for controlling and disciplining migrant subjects within it. Unlike other manifestations of state power in exemplary urban settings, the architecture of urban immigration control is not recognisable through grand buildings or walls, but rather through its momentary presence and continuously shifting location: ad hoc identity controls in public spaces, roadblocks in neighbourhood streets or raids against workplaces. Building on fieldwork conducted in the Malaysian city of George Town, this article takes an interest in how migrants navigate this urban borderscape in order to avoid exploitation and encounters with the police. Read through Asef Bayat's notion of ‘street politics’, the article shows how migrants use the means (made) available to them in order to extend their room to manoeuvre. While such tactics are often driven by the force of necessity, they do nonetheless cumulatively encroach on the state's ability to produce migrants as (un)wanted or even (il)legal subjects in the city. Through this, migrants also challenge the very notion of what an exemplary urban space is as well as who is considered a legitimate part of it.     

Reframing well-being: Lessons from Aotearoa New Zealand's first wave COVID-19 response

Well-being is increasingly being promoted and used to describe social progress. However, tension exists between framings that focus on enhancing individual well-being (living well) and societal or collective framings of well-being (living well together). Well-being is central to Aotearoa New Zealand's COVID-19 response and recovery. The COVID-19 pandemic reopened debates about what kind of society people want to live in. Our research explored the ‘shared typical’ or commonality of experiences of the first wave of COVID-19 response in Aotearoa New Zealand. Semi-structured interviews provided insights into a wide range of concerns participants faced and what that meant for their well-being and the well-being of Aotearoa New Zealand. We found that well-being is both multidimensional and hierarchical, and while people talked about their own well-being, it was often in the context of broader social well-being. These findings support research showing that well-being is relational. We suggest that Indigenous models of well-being are well placed to inform policy strategies enabling holistic well-being, but this needs to be done in ways that pair Indigenous and Western knowledge, rather than integrating or assimilating this knowledge into Western science approaches.     

From free to forced adaptation: A political ecology of the ‘state‐society‐flood’ nexus in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta

This paper investigates the adaptation processes with reference to the narrative analysis of human–environment interactions in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. From the political ecology perspective, it focuses on the discourses of the power relationships embedded within the ‘state‐society‐flood’ nexus over the course of its ‘opening‐up and closing‐off’ processes (e.g. excavating large‐scale canals for human settlements and agricultural expansion (opening‐up) and human interventions into natural systems through water control structures (closing‐off)). Drawing on empirical data gathered from 33 interviews and nine focus group discussions in three study areas and relevant literature, the paper argues that human interactions with the flood environments are intertwined with adjustments of adaptation patterns as evidenced through three periods: free adaptation (pre‐1975), transitional adaptation (1976–2010) and forced adaptation (after 2010). These processes have witnessed a gradual power shift in the ‘state‐society’ relations in manipulating floods, which moves from the top‐down towards a more collaborative fashion. By unravelling the political ecology of the ‘state‐society‐flood’ nexus, this paper exhibits the skewed development in the delta, which is largely bound to short‐term development planning to prioritise local socio‐economic and political objectives. The paper contributes important policy implications for achieving socially just and environmentally sustainable development in the delta.     

Nature's Concept. The ‘New Agriculture’ amidst Ecology,Economy and the Demythologization of the Gene

From worldwide discussions about the limits of agriculture has arisen a powerful vision of sustainable development. Phrases like ‘limitation’, ‘sustainability’, ‘sufficient supply’, ‘fair distribution’ and ‘productivity of resources’ are no longer hindrances but guidelines for a fairer and safer world. ‘Nature's Concept' focuses on biological and ecological principles. On this basis, criteria of action have to be defined in order to determine long‐term economic consequences of agri‐production. The costs of destruction of natural resources, such as reduction of genetic resources, changes to the world climate and soil degradation, are inestimably large. The long‐term effects show the real substance of the agri‐shift and the demands on research. The solution for sustainable agriculture is more than ever a scientific development of ‘tools’ for a sensible management of resources. Gene technology may be an option to reduce the ecological risks of agriculture, especially those of devastating land use. For this purpose, new education programmes with international links and interventions by states are crucial in order to solve conflicts when short‐term interests interfere with long‐term ecological values. The international agri‐centres could have a further impact to guarantee access to new techniques for all countries. Thus agriculture could finally become a major pillar in a fair world order.     

‘Second generation’ Tongan transnationalism: Hope for the future?*

Abstract: Tonga's economy is supported by remittances from Tongans overseas, but there are indications that the younger generations are unlikely to maintain this level of support. There appears to be a complacent attitude to remittances both within Tonga and in externally produced economic reports, yet if remittance levels drop significantly, the ramifications will be disastrous for Tonga. This paper looks at Tongan transnationalism in the context of the current situation in Tonga and the wider Pacific, arguing that it will be crucial, yet very difficult, to encourage the ‘second generation’ overseas to be involved in the process of nation building through transnational engagements. The major obstacles to young people's establishment of transnational ties are examined, and the Tongan situation is compared to U.S. research on second generation trans‐nationalism in other migrant groups. Finally, the ways in which transnational engagements could be encouraged are explored, particularly the importance of language learning and developing a sense of ‘belonging’ to the ‘homeland’.     

Productive transformations and bilateralism in the semi‐periphery: A comparative political economy of the dairy complexes of New Zealand and Chile

Abstract: This paper examines the evolution of the dairy complexes of New Zealand and Chile in the context of increasing bilateral interaction between the two countries, and their recent signing of a ‘Trans‐Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership’ (TPSEP) free‐trade agreement. The two economies can be said to occupy semi‐peripheral positions in global markets and have, through the twentieth and into the twenty‐first century, increasingly competed for market share in a range of primary product (particularly agricultural)‐based export markets. Similar sets of historical processes, although variably timed, have shaped the roles of New Zealand and Chile respectively as resource peripheries, and the extent to which the two countries can collaborate for mutual benefit and transcend these roles is uncertain. In taking a sectoral approach this paper questions the compatibility of the two dairy complexes in the context of the TPSEP, and recommends further sectoral and localised studies in order to better appraise the model of ‘co‐opetition’ promoted through the agreement.     

Geographic imaginations: Exploring divergent notions of identity,power, and place meaning on Pha‐ngan Island,Southern Thailand

This paper explores contrasting narratives of place meaning in a tourism site in Southern Thailand. Specifically, I analyse the parallel discourses of community change through tourism development embedded in international backpacker narratives, and those of the local Thai elite. By configuring identity and power around binary oppositional categories such as West as economically powerful and dominant/non‐West as economically weak and subordinated, ‘traditional’ tourism studies often locate the dynamics of change in the international tourism industry. To date, there is little research on the very real and important ways that people working in tourism assert agency and understand their own identities in everyday contexts. I argue that local communities can, and often do, shape the changes that tourism development initiates in very creative and adaptive ways.     

Disentangling the ‘grass roots’ in Tonga: ‘traditional enterprise’ and autonomy in the moral and market economy

Semi–subsistence sectors predominate throughout Pacific Island countries. But the nature of the social organisation that characterises them, remains generally unexamined. This paper introduces the concept of ‘traditional enterprise’, based on observations in Tonga, to help analytically illuminate the sector. It also investigates processes of household dynamics that lead to selective upward social mobility and the consequent fragmentation of the generalised peasant household. Better understanding of the basic units, goals and means of achieving them among the traditional, rural, or the ‘grass roots’ sectors should help the current developmentalist emphasis on informal sector growth.     

Maori1 commercial fisheries governance in Aotearoa2/New Zealand within the bounds of a neoliberal fisheries management regime

Recent literature on natural resource governance has highlighted the consequences of a strong imprint of neoliberal political ideologies on current environmental policies. A parallel theme in the recent literature relates to claims pertaining to ownership and management of natural resources by indigenous minorities in post‐colonial Western democracies who have been historically marginalised and impoverished by the aftermath of European colonisation. Recently, in order to respond to indigenous demands to settle long‐standing grievances for the return of their ancestral lands and natural resources, some post‐colonial governments have encouraged the development of indigenous self‐governance and co‐management initiatives to manage natural resources such as fisheries and forests. Based on a study of the recent Maori fisheries restitution policy initiatives in Aotearoa/New Zealand, this paper presents a preliminary interrogation of the new hybrid indigenous fisheries governance spaces within the bounds of a neoliberal fisheries management regime.