Agrobiodiversity in a biodiversity hotspot: Kerala State,India. Its origin and status

This paper examines the status and characteristics of agrobiodiversity present in Kerala State, India, which is a part of the Western Ghats—Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. They show much heterogeneity. The State grows 142 crop plants belonging to 104 genera and 43 families. Almost the entire agrobiodiversity conservation work is being carried out by the central government, even though the states are also mandated to do this work. This appears to have an adverse effect on agrobiodiversity conservation. Until now, most attention was being paid to only the most important food and commercial crops, and very limited to their wild relatives and the less important crop plants.     

Flora and plant genetic resources of ancient olive groves of Apulia (Southern Italy)

A floristic study of vascular flora of ancient olive groves of Apulia (Italy) was carried out from 2009 to 2011. Research was made in the fields and in the ecological infrastructures of four olive groves, located in protected areas: National Park of Gargano, Park of Dune Costiere, State and Marine Natural Reserve of Torre Guaceto and of Le Cesine. Floristic analysis was carried out by Raunkiaer and Braun-Blanquet. Biological forms and chorological types were named according to Raunkiear. Overall, 408 taxa were identified, of which 332 species, 73 subspecies and 3 varieties, belonging to 275 genera and 74 families. A small segment of 18 taxa, out of 408, was considered of conservation interest. For these taxa the topography of the collecting site, plant community, population density, degree of vulnerability and habitats were recorded, according to the Directive 92/43/EEC. Another segment of 111 taxa, out of a total of 408, was considered important for usage, which for the sake of presentation has been divided in five arbitrary categories: food crops, fodder crops, medicinal, aromatic and officinalis, crop wild relatives and edible wild species. For each of these taxa, an attempt to provide relevant information was made. Only two taxa, i.e., Muscari parviflorum and Aegilops uniaristata are common to both segments. The work was carried out within the competence of the LIFE+ CENT.OLI.MED. (LIFE07 NAT/IT/000450) project, with the aim to gather information for improving conservation and management of olive groves of Apulia, as well as of their related wild life.     

Pseudocereals and millets: the lost crops of Kashmir

The aim of present study was to know about past cultivation of pseudocereals and millets in Kashmir province of Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. These crops which were cultivated throughout Kashmir in plains as well as in hilly areas are buckwheat species, Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tataricum; amaranth and minor millets, Setaria italica and Panicum miliaceum. In Kashmir these are now forgotten crops. Few plants of amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) are still grown in almost every kitchen garden in Kashmir. The crop is however not cultivated commercially neither in Kashmir nor in Ladakh or Jammu provinces of the state. Our study has revealed that cultivation of all these crops has been abandoned some five or six decades back throughout Kashmir excepting in few farflung hilly areas in north Kashmir. Currently these crops are also cultivated in Ladakh, but here also their cultivation is dwindling rapidly. The reasons as to why farmers have abandoned these crops and are increasingly losing interest in these biological assets in the areas of their present cultivation have been discussed. There is a need to rescue these threatened crops which have many advantages besides, being nowadays categorized as quality health foods. During our survey in Ladakh province we have collected 30 germplasm accessions of these crops from various locations. These have been deposited in National Seed Gene Bank at NBPGR, New Delhi for conservation and evaluation. The improvement and revival of these lost crops has the potential to diversify agriculture, food system and income of the poor farmers and have the ability to ensure food security and livelihood of the people in this Himalayan state under future adverse climatic conditions.     

Chlorophyll meter readings,N leaf concentration and their relationship with N use efficiency in oregano

Plant-based diagnostic techniques such as chlorophyll meter (CM) readings and nitrogen (N) leaf concentration are used to determine the level of crop N nutrition, but research is limited on perennial crops and especially on aromatic and medicinal plants such as Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare spp. hirtum). The objectives of this study were to determine in a perennial crop species whether there is a relationship between the CM readings, N leaf concentration, and N use efficiency (NUE) and to use CM readings as a diagnostic tool for predicting dry matter yield in response to N fertilization. The CM readings varied across environments, growth stages, and fertilization treatments and were correlated with NUE. NUE was also affected by the environment, N fertilization, and interactions among these variables. This study provides new information about the effect of N application on CM readings, N leaf concentration, and NUE in a perennial crop such as oregano.     

Medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation in the Swat valley,north-western Pakistan,for economic development and biodiversity conservation

Most people in the Swat valley of northwest Pakistan practice subsistence farming, supplementing their income by collecting and selling wild harvested plants for use in herbal medicine. Previous work showed that the collectors did not know the potential long-term impacts of collecting wild plants. We hypothesized that establishment of ex situ cultivation plots for these most valuable species would provide a sustainable alternative and lead to development of skills in agricultural production and marketing among participants. Swat valley farmers were helped to establish plots in four locations and taught to cultivate ten medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). In the first year, workshops were held on the financial benefits of growing MAPs for trade, criteria in selecting species, and strategies to improve MAP yield. In the second year, emphasis was placed on helping the farmers achieve a better price for their products by engaging them in discussions concerning criteria used in setting purchase prices. Seven of the ten cultivated MAPs yielded a better financial return than tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.), the traditional cash crop in the area. Cultivating MAPs can yield a higher financial return than traditional cash crops, but a long-term assessment is necessary. Offering training in collection, preservation, and marketing can enhance the financial return and the long-term benefits of cultivation. Introduction of standardized production technology and appropriate post-harvest management has become a prime engine of growth for the economies of the subsistence farmers participating in our study, and is leading to better management and conservation practices for MAPs and the landscapes in which they grow.     

A problem of the rich: Prioritizing local plant genetic resources for ex situ conservation in Israel

A priority list of 323 plant species was created through a consultative process for ex situ conservation in the recently inaugurated Israel Plant Gene Bank (IGB). The IGB is set up to preserve plant genetic resources and the endangered genetic variability of the Israeli flora. Upon its inauguration, we consulted with the country’s leading plant breeders and botanists in an attempt to create a list of the most important plant species to be included in the initial collections. The list includes crop wild relatives (CWRs), selected according to their contribution to humans: edible plants (grains, vegetables, oil); forage plants; species with potential industrial and biotechnological applications (e.g. spices, medicinal plants, aromatic plants, fibers, dyes), and species with horticultural and forestry potential. We further ranked the species on the basis of assessed values for each of seven characteristics: distribution range in the country; abundance; rarity of the growing habitats; endemism; red number index—representing imminent threat of extinction; availability of samples in Israeli collections, and genetic relationship to cultivated crops. The sum of the assessed values for these seven characteristics was used to group the species on the list into four main prioritized-collection schemes. Statistical analysis indicated that all attributes had similar influence on the collecting prioritization scheme. In general, rare species with low abundance in their growing habitats were ranked in the highest priority group, while highly distributed species were sorted together into a lower priority group. The prioritization scheme will be used to optimize the collection in the IGB with the aim of establishing its collecting activities.     

Effects of agri-environment management for stone curlews on other biodiversity

Two-hectare unsown, tilled fallow plots put in place under agri-environment schemes for stone curlews Burhinus oedicnemus in England were surveyed for other bird species, brown hares Lepus europaeus, carabid beetles, vascular plants, butterflies and bumblebees. The results were compared with those from surveys within the crop in the same field and in neighbouring fields. This was done to test whether agri-environment management targeted at a single species also provided benefits to wider biodiversity. All groups except carabid beetles were more abundant, more likely to be recorded, or more species rich on plots than within the crop. Carabid beetle activity–density and species richness did not differ between the plot and the crop; activity–density of one functional group (predators) was lower on plots than in the crop. Six rare arable plant species were recorded, predominantly from plots, and the plots are considered to perform comparably to other agri-environment options available in England designed specifically for arable plants. One red-listed bird species of conservation concern (skylark Alauda arvensis) was more abundant on plots than in the crop, and three other red-listed species (linnet Carduelis cannabina, yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella, corn bunting E. calandra) were more likely to be recorded on plots than in the crop. A fifth (lapwing Vanellus vanellus) was almost exclusively recorded from plots, and was more likely to be recorded on plots categorised as in good condition for stone curlews. These results demonstrate that fallow plots that have been put in place for the recovery of stone curlews have considerable value for a range of other farmland biodiversity, although management for stone curlews may be detrimental to some taxa, such as carabid beetles, that are sensitive to the relatively frequent spring tillage that these plots receive.     

The dynamics of different organic and inorganic phosphorus fractions in soils from the south of Santa Fe province,Argentina

Abstract

The effect of fractioning organic (Po) and inorganic (Pi) phosphorus components on phosphorus form and availability in long‐term cultivation (1) was studied. The study analyzed a Typic Argiudoll soil under three cropping systems: permanent pasture, long‐term cultivation, and mixed pasture and cultivation use. One soil had been cultivated for at least 50 years and one was cultivated for at least 30 years.

The effects of several modifications of these soils were analyzed. Short‐term modifications were determined in a greenhouse experiment in which two successive crops were grown after an initial fertilizer treatment. Long‐term cultivation induced a loss of P, which was considerably greater than the losses of total C or N. Similarly, decreases in pH, extractable P (2), resin‐extractable P, Na‐bicarbonate and Na‐hydroxide Pi, and Na‐bicarbonate Po indicated a long‐term loss of plant‐available Pi with management practices over time.

Increases in some forms of P were observed. Sodium‐hydroxide Po, an organic P form, did not show a significant trend but appeared to increase with years of cultivation. Resin‐extractable Pi was the only fraction that increased significantly as a result of P fertilization.

The relationship observed between dry weight and P concentration of greenhouse plants with the different organic and inorganic P fractions suggests that both types of determinations may be used to predict crop response to P fertilization.     

Growing three aromatic grasses in different alkali soils in semi‐arid regions of northern India

Alkali lands in India occupy about 3 million ha. Due to poor physical properties, excessive exchangeable sodium and high pH, most of these lands support a very poor vegetation cover. Many of the medicinal and aromatic plants are in great demand for both internal requirements and export. But since these crops are non‐conventional in nature, it is not always possible for them to be produced on fertile lands, which can be used for arable crops. The marginal lands, specifically the lands affected by salinity or sodicity problems where profitable returns are not possible from agricultural crops, could be successfully utilized for the cultivation of these high‐value crops with marginal inputs. Results reported in this paper clearly indicated that out of three aromatic grasses, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.) and lemon grass (C. flexuosus (Steud.) Wats.) could successfully be grown on moderatly alkali soils of pH up to 9·2 while vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash), which withstands both high pH and stagnation of water, could successfully be grown without significant yield reduction on highly alkali soils. These grasses not only produce essential oils used for industrial purposes but also ameliorate the soil. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Light Intensity Effects on Growth and Micronutrient Uptake by Tropical Legume Cover Crops

ABSTRACT

Cover crops are important components of a sustainable crop-production system in plantation crops such as cacao (theobroma cacao), coffee (Coffee arabica), oil palm (Elaeis Spp.), and banana (Musa Spp.). Optimal growth of cover crops in plantation agriculture is determined by adaptability of crop species, light intensity reaching their leaf canopies, and their nutrient-use efficiencies, including those of micronutrients. An experiment was conducted in a climatically controlled growth chamber to evaluate the influence of levels of light intensity on growth and micronutrient [boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn)] uptake parameters in legume cover crops. Two photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD, 200 and 400 μmol m^?2 s^?1) light treatments were imposed on nine legume species (joint vetch (Aeschynomene americana), sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.), Crotalaria rchroleuca, showy crotalaria (crotalaria spectabilis), hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsute L.), lab-lab (Lablab purpureus), sesbania (Sesbania microcarpa), Brazilian stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis), and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)). Overall, light intensity significantly affected growth, micronutrient uptake, and use-efficiency ratios; with few exceptions, interactions between cover crop species and PPFD were also significant. Such PPFD × crop species interactions show that the cover crops used in this study differed in growth and nutrient-uptake parameters under the conditions imposed. Sunhemp, cowpea, sesbania, and lab-lab species were superior in producing shoot dry weight and in nutrient accumulation compared with other species at lower as well as at higher PPFD levels. Interspecific differences in nutrient influx and transport were observed. Influx and transport of micronutrients was in the order Mn > B > Fe > Zn > Cu. Overall, growth, nutrient uptake, and use-efficiency ratios were higher at higher PPFD than at lower PPFD. Results of this study indicate that the use of proper crop species at adequate light intensities is an important component of successful cultivation of cover crops in plantation agriculture.     

Effects of vineyard management on biodiversity at three trophic levels

In annual crops, where disturbance intensities are generally high, numerous investigations demonstrated beneficial effects of organic and other extensive farming practices on biodiversity. It is however unclear if organic farming has the same beneficial effect in perennial crops (e.g. vineyards) because of a generally reduced background disturbance level. Moreover, the impact of farming practices on biodiversity may differ between trophic levels. We tested the effect of farming practices differing in disturbance intensity on the abundance, species richness and community composition of three trophic levels (plants, grasshoppers and spiders) in Swiss vineyards. Organic and conventional vineyards were compared, and within the latter different options of weed control (mowing vs. mulching) and pest management (hand spraying vs. helicopter spraying) were investigated. In contrast to findings in annual crops, organic farming promoted neither diversity nor abundance at any trophic level. Grasshopper diversity was even significantly lower in organic compared to conventional vineyards. Weed control as well as pest management differed in their effects, depending on the trophic level. Within conventionally managed vineyards, spider and grasshopper diversity were enhanced by mulching, while plants benefited from the lower disturbance of mowing. The greater disturbance of fungicide spraying by hand than by helicopter was disadvantageous for grasshoppers, but did not affect spiders and plants. Thus, different taxa respond differently not only to an increase in disturbance but also to different types of disturbance and local site conditions. We conclude that disturbance in organically farmed vineyards appears to be too low to be beneficial for biodiversity.     

Ethnobotanical flora used by four major tribes of Koraput, Odisha, India

The aim of this study is to chronicle the utilization pattern of a number of plant species by four major tribes inhabiting in Koraput district of Odisha, India. Fifteen villages dominated by tribal communities, under five Community Development Blocks were selected. A semi structured questionnaire was developed to bring together data on traditional crops and forest species still used by the communities. The methodology engaged was personal discussions with mixed focused groups combined with field visits, photographs, voice recordings and collection of materials. Findings were that tribal communities cultivate a diverse crop species with varying durations to meet their food and economic requirement throughout the year. This was supplemented by wild food collections during scarcity periods. Various forest species provide wood, fibre, leaves and grasses for agriculture, house construction and specific uses besides enhancing household income. Tribal health care practitioners collect medicinal plants from the wild and semi wild to treat both humans and livestock. At the end of the study the team assumed that tribal communities would continue to depend on traditional crops and wild forest foods for their household consumption and a diverse species of plants for other specific use. Conservation of these valuable resources in its natural habitat would be an appropriate approach for ensuring food security of future generations. Conventional plant breeders and biotechnologists should undertake scientific validation of these crops and plants to make their value explicitly known. This knowledge could be utilized for crop improvement and bio-prospecting. There is also scope for equitable sharing of benefits if used by the seed and pharmaceutical industries in future.     

Surrogate taxa for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes of eastern Austria

In an agricultural landscape in eastern Austria eight terrestrial organism groups were investigated as potential biodiversity indicators. We present a cross-taxon congruence assessment obtained at the landscape scale using two groups of plants (bryophytes and vascular plants), five groups of invertebrates (gastropods, spiders, orthopterans, carabid beetles and ants) and one vertebrate taxon (birds). We tested four different approaches: correlated species counts, surrogate measures of the overall species richness that was assessed, a multi-taxa (or shopping basket) approach and a simple complementarity algorithm. With few exceptions, pairwise correlations between taxa, correlations between one taxon and the species richness of the remaining groups, and correlations between a combination of the richness of two taxa and the remaining species richness were highly positive. Complementarity-derived priority sets of sampling sites using one taxon as a surrogate for the pooled species richness of all other taxa captured significantly more species than selecting areas randomly. As an essential first step in selecting useful biodiversity indicators, we demonstrate that species richness of vascular plants and birds showed the highest correlations with the overall species richness. In a multi-taxa approach and in complementarity site selection, each of the eight investigated taxa had the capability to capture a high percentage of the overall species richness.     

Diversification of Multipurpose Plant, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perilla Frutescens</Emphasis>

The traditional Asian crop, Perilla frutescens has multiple uses. There are specialized cultivars for seed oil and for medicinal use, as well as wild/weedy forms growing in various habitats. Based on selective characteristics of leaf odor, anthocyanin pigmentation, seed hardness and seed diameter, the diversity of this species was investigated to clarify the intraspecific differentiation. P. frutescens was divided into five groups by the combination of three qualitative characteristics: leaf odor, anthocyanin pigmentation and seed hardness. Most of the plants cultivated for oil belonged to one group, while medicinal plants belonged to three other groups. Wild/weedy forms were in the last group. The five groups could not be distinguished by seed diameter. Though the plants cultivated for oil tended to have larger seeds than the medicinal and wild/weedy plants, there was no boundary either between the two crops, or among various phenotypes of P. frutescens.     

Cultivation of medicinal isabgol (Plantago ovata) in alkali soils in semiarid regions of Northern India

There is growing global demand for medicinal drugs including isabgol (Plantago ovata). With increasing demand of food for an ever‐increasing population in India, it is not possible to bring arable lands under cultivation for aromatic and medicinal plants. Salt‐affected lands (both saline and alkali) occupy about 8·6 million ha. Due to poor physical properties and excessive exchangeable Na⁺, most of these lands do not support good vegetation cover. The marginal and salt‐affected lands could be successfully utilized for the cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants. We achieved almost complete germination of isabgol seeds using up to 5000 ppm salt‐solution. Grain yield (including husk) was 1·47 to 1·58 t ha⁻¹ at pH 9·2 showing no significant yield reduction as compared to normal soil. At pH 9·6 the grain yield was 1·03 to 1·12 t ha⁻¹. At higher pH there was significant reduction in yield. Sowing in good moisture (at field capacity) of soil was found best, but to save time sowing at shallow depth in dry soil, followed by irrigation was also suitable as compared to broadcasting seeds. The chlorophyll content was greater 70 days after sowing compared to younger stages (50 days after sowing). The total chlorophyll and plant biomass were lower from crops grown by broadcasting methods of sowing as compared to two other methods of sowing. The leaf area index (LAI) was higher for the broadcasting method of sowing as compared to the other two methods. Na⁺ absorption increased and K⁺ and K⁺/Na⁺ ratio decreased with increase in pH. Results reported in this paper clearly indicate that isabgol can successfully be grown on moderately alkali soils up to pH 9·6 without the application of any amendment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

农业系统中生物多样性利用的研究现状与未来思考

"现代农业"生产力高,但生物多样性简单化、生物之间的相互作用及其生态学效应常常被忽略,其生产力的稳定性主要依赖于化学肥料、农药、灌溉和高产品种等的投入。传统农业则是利用当地生物多样性(物种多样性和遗传多样性)和生物之间的相互作用来产出食物和维持系统的稳定。因而现代农业能否借鉴传统农业对生物多样性利用的经验,将工业化模式的现代农业转换为生物多样性利用与现代技术相结合的农业受到关注。本文分析了农业系统中生物多样性的特点及农业方式对农业生物多样性的影响;综述了农业系统中生物多样性利用模式与效应方面的研究进展;讨论了在现代农业系统中,利用生物多样性需要开展的研究,即区域上如何布局农业景观多样性,农田内如何根据生物之间的互惠关系配置物种多样性的种养体系,如何建设与生物多样性利用相应的田间设施和发展新型的农业机械、并建立以信息化为基础的管理体系。     

Intercropping of Different Secondary Crops in Maize

Intercropping and bicropping are common cultivation systems in many countries. Maize (Zea mays L.) as a main crop combined with a legume as secondary crop is in general use in many countries. These systems may contribute to a higher biodiversity, and reduced import of fertilizer, concentrates and agrochemicals. The objective of this research was to select an appropriate secondary crop that could be grown with maize in an intercropping system to control weeds while maintaining maize yields. Field beans (Vicia faba L.), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth.) and thyphon [Brassica rapa L. ar. rapa (L.) Thell] were selected as secondary crops. Acceptable yields of dry matter in maize were obtained regardless of secondary crop. Different yield levels were obtained depending on the morphology of the secondary crop. Thyphon, a high, dense secondary crop with large leaves, shaded the lower maize canopy, and thereby reduced the yield of maize. In contrast, field bean, which is tall and has a narrow canopy, did not reduce maize yield. A negative relation was found between the yield of secondary crop plus weeds in August and October and the yield of maize in October. The secondary crops were not sufficiently competitive against weeds in the first part of the growing season. Thyphon competed too much against maize. Field bean and phacelia resulted in a minimum of competition against maize, and a maximum competition against weeds, compared with the other secondary crops.     

Glyphosate-tolerant cotton in Australia: successes and failures

ABSTRACT

Cotton is an important cash crop grown on 2.5% of the world’s arable land in over 100 countries, and has a 31% share of the world’s fibre market. In Australia, cotton is also a leading crop and contributes around AUD $3 billion to the total agricultural production. Weeds are a major biotic constraint resulting in yield losses of up to 90% and revenue losses of around AUD $100 billion globally and $4 billion to Australian agriculture. Genetically-modified (GM) crops have refashioned the weed management with more dependency on glyphosate. Such overreliance has led to the evolution of 43 glyphosate-resistant (GR) weed populations globally, with 16 species reported from Australia. Such GR weeds along with volunteer glyphosate-tolerant (GT) plants are now decreasing the value of the GM crops and forcing growers to spend more time and effort, and investment in their management. Weed management strategies need to be diversified and integrated with non-chemical methods and alternative herbicides not only to achieve efficient control, but to reduce the rate of evolution of GR weeds. In future, research is needed to improve integrated weed management through development and use of competitive and multiple herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops, organic herbicides, bio-herbicides, RNAi technology and robotics.     

Inventory of related wild species of priority crops in Venezuela

A prerequisite in any conservation programme of Plant Genetic Resources is estimation of diversity. The inventory of wild and naturalized relatives of priority crops in Venezuela (CWR) is based on the main Catalogues of Flora in the country, selecting taxa closely related to crops, according to the concepts of “gene pool” and “taxonomic group”. We included 47 genera, 217 species and 228 taxa belonging to 28 plant families. Among them, those with higher richness are: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Araceae, Lauraceae, Dioscoreaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae and Myrtaceae. Genera with a higher number of species are Xanthosoma, Persea, Dioscorea, Prunus, Psidium, Phaseolus, Solanum, Vigna, Capsicum, Manihot, Theobroma, Ipomoea and Oryza. A total of 26 endemic species are found, which belong to genera Xanthosoma, Persea, Dioscorea, Prunus and Manihot. The primary gene pool of crops include native species from genera such as Manihot, Solanum (Section Petota), Lycopersicon, Ananas, Capsicum, Dioscorea, Xanthosoma, Phaseolus, Theobroma, Ipomoea, Gossypium, Arracacia and Psidium. Genera with native species weakly related to crops are Saccharum, Persea, Ipomoea, Prunus, Vigna, Solanum (Section Melongena) and Daucus. Crop genera without native species in Venezuela are Allium, Musa, Brassica, Spinacia, Helianthus, Pisum, Lactuca, Citrus, Elaeis, Beta, Glycine and Triticum. Only a few taxa have already been evaluated according to the IUCN criteria, and Venezuelan accessions of crop wild relatives in national and international genebanks are very scarce.