Planners or performers? Reflections on indigenous dryland farming in northern Burkina Faso

Indigenous agricultural practices in semiarid West Africa must be seen as dynamic operations that serve different ends. These ends are not only agricultural, but symbolic. By highlighting how farmers in the Central Plateau region of Burkina Faso organize their farming strategies, the “agriculture as performance” arguments developed by Richards (1987, 1993) can be both challenged and extended from the humid forest zone of West Africa. Farmers, it can be argued, are also keen “planners;” in order to meet their goals they invest considerable effort in overcoming ecological constraints, and also spend time forging links with various institutions working for agricultural development. Technologies and ideas from multiple sources—including those from some innovative development institutions — are incorporated in agricultural planning and practices in different ways, by different farmers, and for different reasons. The prospect of locally initiated and managed agricultural change emerging on the Central Plateau will be dependent upon this dialogue between farmer innovation, local organizations, and development projects. Agricultural systems are, in many cases, consciously “constructed” through sustained investment in the land and in natural resource management. Dryland management efforts need to recognize the strategic and planned nature of these activities, if they are to work with farmers who are actively building and improving their own livelihood systems.     

The forest conversion process: A discussion of the sustainability of predominant land uses associated with frontier expansion in the Amazon

One of the most striking features observed throughout tropical agricultural frontiers is the extreme variability in land-use strategies from one farmer to the next. This article analyzes the forest conversion process and predominant land uses associated with smallholder settlement expansion in the Amazon frontier. The discussion seeks to increase understanding of the micro and macro-level forces that propel land-use decisions in the Amazon and offer insights about how farmers' land-use decisions may be altered to bring about forms of resource use that are consistent with the constraints and opportunities of the frontier environment. Recognizing that no frontier area can be truly representative of the Amazon as a whole, this article also introduces some detailed evidence from another Amazon country (Ecuador) within a topic that has been previously dominated by research mainly in Brazil. The analysis suggests that to be effective, any policy or technology-based effort on the part of governments or researchers to alter colonist land-use systems must begin to look systematically at the production systems of agricultural colonist populations already present in frontier environments. This knowledge is essential to understand the social and economic factors affecting present land use and choice of technology. It is also important for understanding factors influencing farmers' demand for more optimal systems of land use that are consistent with varying agroecological potentials, demographic situations, and the management capacity of the farmer.     

Managing the fallow: Weeding technology and environmental knowledge in the Krobo district of Ghana

The paper explores the relationship between environmental knowledge and farming and fallowing strategies on degraded forest land in the Upper Manya Krobo district of southeastern Ghana. Changes in cropping strategies are related to the expansion and transformation of frontier agrarian settlement, increasing population density, social differentiation, and land hunger. As a consequence land degradation has become a serious problem among the smaller farmers with insufficient land to allow fallow recuperation. Small farmers' awareness and perceptions of the processes of degradation are explored, as are possible innovative contributions to the development of agroforestry research. But labor constraints often prevent the farmer from developing practical systems of fallow management. Local environmental knowledge reveals important insights into the processes of fallow degradation, potentials for fallow management, constraints that farmers face, and some problems that might emerge with the transformation of current agroforestry technology to farmers' fields. It is suggested that this knowledge should not be abstracted from its socio-economic context. The problems that local farmers' knowledge reveal are in this respect as important as questions of its efficacy and potential as a resource.     

Science and people: Honduran campesinos and natural pest control inventions

Farmers are experts on their natural environment and are innate experimenters. However they do not know everything. Filling in gaps of missing farmer knowledge can help them improve their experiments. The authors designed and taught a course to Honduran farmers that effectively covered a number of key points on insect ecology and biology that farmers had not understood. After receiving the course many farmers did experiments to solve pest problems without synthetic pesticides.     

灌木层及主要灌木种在椴树红松林养分循环中的地位与作用

对原始椴树红松林中的灌木层及主要灌木种（毛榛子、溲疏和刺五加）的生物量、养分量、存留量、归还量、吸收量、循环速率等方面在林分的养分循环中的地位与作用进行了研究。研究结果表明：灌木层虽在林分的养分循环中处于次要地位,但具有促使林分养分步入良性生物循环的重要作用。毛榛子和溲疏是该林分灌木中的优势或亚优势种,在养分循环中起着重要的或突出的作用,是重点保护的灌木种。刺五加在养分循环中存留养分比较多,归还养分比较少,虽然消耗地力却是具有药用的灌木种,对它应既维持又要控制。     

河长制背景下制度能力对村民水环境治理决策行为的影响——基于Double-Hurdle模型

为研究在河长制全面推行背景下,制度能力对村民水环境治理决策行为的影响,采用陕西、河南两省610个村民的微观调查数据,利用Double-Hurdle模型,以知识资源、关系资源、动员能力3个制度能力维度进行实证分析。结果表明:1)村民对水环境治理有较强的参与意愿,有78%的样本村民愿意参与,其支付意愿区间为200.08～259.57元/年;2)知识资源变量中,奖惩规则和规则执行力度对村民水环境治理的参与意愿及参与程度均有显著正向影响;3)关系资源变量中,干群关系对村民水环境治理参与意愿有显著正向促进作用,村民贡献受重视程度对水环境治理参与意愿和参与程度有显著正向影响;4)动员能力变量中,村委会或河长所拥有的治水专业知识显著正向影响村民水环境治理的参与意愿和参与程度,村内组织动员能力显著正向影响水环境参与意愿,村外资源获取能力显著正向影响水环境治理参与程度。基于分析结果,建议培育知识资源、搭建合作平台、强化村内组织动员和外部资源获取能力,提升村民外在信任水平、内在责任感和归属感,使信任、认同及合作成为农村公共事务治理长效动员中的力量源泉。     

如何提高农牧民学员的应用文写作水平

农牧民学应用文,可增加外出务工机会,维护合法权益。在学员基础较差的情况下教师教学应掌握简练、实用、易学、以农牧民在生产生活实践中常用的应用文体为主的原则,培养兴趣、激发热情、大量实践、及时总结,从而提高农牧民学员的应用文写作水平。     

Exploring the theory and practice of participatory research in US sustainable agriculture: A case study in insect pest management

Farmers have always played a key role in developing and testing agricultural technology. Scientist initiated agricultural research models and methods that explicitly include the participation of farmers principally have been developed and implemented in the Third World. Recently, these strategies have begun to receive attention in the US sustainable agriculture research community. This paper presents a case study where scientists collaborated with farmers in developing, implementing, and revising research in peach insect pest management in sustainable agroecosystems in California. A theoretical framework constructed from emerging epistemological and philosophical premises is used to point out the imperative of including participatory strategies in US sustainable agriculture. Methods drawn from Rapid Rural Appraisal were adapted to fit the local circumstances of working within intensive peach production systems and with a US farmer or ganization, California Clean Growers Association, in developing a research agenda. Farmer-scientist participation continued throughout the research implementation phases via individual and group meetings. A mid-project workshop provided a forum where farmers had explicit decision-making power over the course of the research project. Selected natural science research results are presented to illustrate the value of merging farmers' and scientists' knowledge in achieving relevant and scientifically interesting information. It is argued that the adoption and innovation of participatory research strategies in US sustainable agriculture will require confronting philosophical and methodological issues at individual and institutional levels.     

西南地区水旱轮作系统养分管理存在问题分析与管理策略建议

本文通过农户调查的方法研究了西南地区水旱轮作系统养分管理现状与存在的主要问题,并提出了管理策略建议。调查结果表明,农户间施肥量差异大,过量与不足现象并存;养分施用不平衡、偏施氮肥的现象比较普遍;氮肥施用时期不合理,与作物需求不同步;没有考虑环境养分供应与水旱轮作系统养分动态特征。养分管理应当遵循:从整个轮作系统出发调控养分,综合应用各种养分资源,根据不同养分资源的特征确定管理策略,以及综合应用减少养分损失,高产栽培等农作技术的养分资源综合管理策略。     

Local knowledge and farmer perceptions of bean diseases in the central African highlands

Central African highland farmers' perceptions of common bean disease were investigated using both phytopathology and anthropological techniques. Farmers rarely mentioned diseases as production constraints in formal questionnaires. More participatory research showed farmers often related disease symptoms to the effects of rain and soil depletion for fungal diseases, or to varietal traits for bean common mosaic virus. Rain or moisture is divided into numerous forms through which it can damage plants, both physically and through putrefaction. Most conditions associated with putrefaction appear to be linked to pathogens. Farmers have an understanding of plant health closely related to their concept of human health. In plants, this understanding is based on the prior state of plant health. Conceptually, local disease management strategies are based on prevention by managing the conditions that promote good plant health rather than by treating disease symptoms. Intervention strategies that build on local knowledge are encouraged.     

发达地区农户小额信贷需求影响因素实证研究

对佛山农村地区的490户农户的信贷需求和小额信贷行为进行了调查分析,运用二元Logitstic模型,实证检验了发达地区农户小额信贷需求的影响因素。结果表明,发达地区农户正规信贷市场参与度高;农户对小额信贷需求意愿强烈,有正规信贷需求的农户对小额信贷的认可度高,且希望得到小额信贷的相关培训服务;与贫困地区农户信贷资金主要满足生活消费性用途不同的是,发达地区农户贷款以投资生产性用途为主;发达地区农户的信贷额度较大,但金融需求的满足率不高。计量分析表明：发达地区农户投资活跃度、家庭教育支出、小额信贷的认识性评价对农户小额信贷需求有显著正向影响;发达地区农户家庭耕地面积、投资规模、家庭年收入、农业收入、家庭固定资产价值对农户小额信贷需求有显著负向影响。     

The impact of farmers’ assessments of risk management strategies on their adoption willingness

Farmers’ assessments of risk management strategies and how the assessments influence their willingness to adopt these strategies are poorly understood. This study conducts a structured survey of 469 farmers to investigate how farmers assess both crop insurance and crop price insurance, the impact of the assessments on their adoption willingness, and in particular, the differences in assessments and adoption willingness between crop insurance and crop price insurance. Empirical results show that farmers’ assessments on crop insurance can be significantly improved through communication and experience. The most effective way to improve farmers’ assessments on crop price insurance is providing adequate information about the insurance products. Furthermore, farmers’ adoption willingness would be enhanced by improved assessment of both crop yield and crop price insurance. This study provides the first empirical evidence that farmers have limited information to assess insurance, which significantly influences their willingness to adopt. This finding reflects that the dissemination of insurance policies, the effectiveness of insurance, and the availability of insurance services significantly enable farmers’ ability to assess risk management strategies, which potentially increases farmers’ willingness to adopt insurance.     

Local agro-ecological knowledge and its relationship to farmers’ pest management decision making in rural Honduras

Integrated pest management (IPM) has been widely promoted in the developing world, but in many regions its adoption rates have been variable. Experience has shown that to ensure IPM adoption, the complexities of local agro-production systems and context-specific folk knowledge need to be appreciated. Our research explored the linkages between farmer knowledge, pest management decision making, and ecological attributes of subsistence maize agriculture. We report a case study from four rural communities in the highlands of southeast Honduras. Communities were typified by their agro-environments, IPM training history, and levels of infestation by a key maize pest, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda Smith). Although variable, infestation levels generally did not justify pest management intervention. Consequently, crop losses from this pest were considered of low importance and most farmers proceeded in a rational fashion by refraining from action in their fields. Farmers attributed the low degree of pest infestation predominantly to abiotic causal factors (rainfall, temperature). The role of natural enemies in controlling this pest (i.e., biological control) was deemed of low importance by farmers; nevertheless, a broad array of such organisms was mentioned by farmers as operating in their maize crop. Farmers’ knowledge of natural enemies only partially matched scientific knowledge and was associated with the ecological features of their respective field settings. Local knowledge about natural enemies was mainly restricted to abundant and easily observable predatory species. Farmers who were knowledgeable about biological control were also familiar with a larger variety of pest management alternatives than uninformed farmers. Management options covered a wide range of curative techniques, including conservation biological control. Farmers who relied on insecticides to manage pest outbreaks knew less about biological control and pesticide alternatives. In contrast, farmers who received IPM training mentioned more types of natural enemies and were familiar with a broader range of alternative pest management tactics. Our research suggests that IPM training modifies local knowledge to better fit its environmental context. This paper provides insights in the environmental context of local agro-ecological knowledge and its linkage with pest management decision making. It also constitutes a basis for modifying IPM extension programs to deliver locality-specific technologies while strengthening the local knowledge base. Kris A. G. Wyckhuys is a Belgian bio-science engineer and entomologist currently employed as postdoctoral researcher at the University of Minnesota. For his PhD research at Purdue University he quantified social and ecological contributions to farmers’ adoption of insect pest management technologies in Honduran subsistence maize. He has a keen interest in the ecological facets of IPM and biological control, as well as in technological innovation in smallholder production systems, ethno-entomology and traditional pest management. Robert J. O’Neil is a Professor of Entomology specializing in biological control, predator–prey dynamics, and implementing biological control in IPM systems. His current work focuses on the ecology and management of the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, an invasive pest of soybeans in North America.     

Climate change and Chinese farmers: Perceptions and determinants of adaptive strategies

Farmers' perceptions, beliefs, adaptive strategies, and barriers regarding climate change are critical to promoting sustainable ecosystems and societal stability. This paper is based on an extensive survey of 1 500 farmers and their households in Henan Province in China during 2013–2014. Henan is the largest agricultural province in China with over 51 million farmers. The survey results showed that approximately 57% of the respondents perceived the direct impact of climate change during the past 10 years, with 70.3% believing that climate change posed a risk to their livelihood. Not surprisingly, most farmers reported that they have adopted new measures to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. The main barriers hindering farmers' adopting adaptation measures were lack of funds and timely information. A multinomial logit model revealed that land ownership, knowledge of crop variety and the causes of climate change, as well as the belief of climate change, were all positively related to the likelihood of employing adaptive strategies. Moreover, the percentage of households engaging in agriculture activity, and years of engaging in farming were both negatively correlated with famer's likelihood of adopting adaptation strategies. More importantly, farmers with high incomes were less likely to adopt adaptive strategies and more willing to engage in other business activities. In conclusion, it is important to communicate climate change related information and government policies in rural areas, promote farmer associations and other educational outreach efforts to assist Chinese farmers to deal with climate change.     

森林生态系统养分循环及其动态模拟研究

养分循环是研究森林生态系统的一个重要部分。国内外学者对森林生态系统的研究有很长的历史,建立了养分的分室模型,经历了森林生态系统养分循环研究从一个静态向动态转变的过程。随着计算机技术的发展,养分循环进入动态模拟阶段,推进了对森林生态系统养分循环的研究。本文综述森林生态系统养分循环的发展概况、养分循环过程及其动态模拟过程,为整体了解森林生态系统养分循环提供帮助。     

Transitions to agroecological farming systems in the Mississippi River Basin: toward an integrated socioecological analysis

Industrial agriculture has extensive environmental and social costs, and efforts to create alternative farming systems are widespread if not yet widely successful. This study explored how a set of grain farmers and rotational graziers in Iowa transitioned to agroecological management practices. Our focus on the resources and strategies that farmers mobilized to develop opportunities for, and overcome barriers to, transitioning to alternative practices allows us to go beyond the existing literature focused on why farmers transition. We attend to both the ecological and socioeconomic context of innovation by comparing processes of technical change in two contrasting regions of Iowa. Farmers cultivated farm-level biodiversity and enterprise diversity, developed new cognitive and psychological competencies, and overcame barriers to innovation by developing external network linkages with peers, knowledge organizations, and federal policies. Our research provides insights into how biophysical, cognitive, structural and market considerations can be integrated into research efforts that aim to make sense of innovation toward sustainable agriculture.     

提高农民生态伦理意识的对策研究

在江苏省开展了有关农民生态伦理教育的问卷调查,从调查结果看,部分农民的生态伦理意识较低,农村生态文明建设中需要重视并解决。分析结果显示,提高农民生态伦理意识有利于其关注生态环境、支持生态保护政策、积极投入生态保护活动。农民生态伦理教育需要培育农民的公民意识,强化教育的针对性,发挥农村基层组织作用等方面的工作。     

水产动物养殖尾水管控策略

当前水产动物养殖尾水大多直接排放,已经对环境造成了严重污染。为有效管控养殖尾水排放,本着全面系统性和实用性原则,笔者从指导思想和行动上对生产者和政策管理者提出了如下建议：（1）理解和维护中国的环境保护基本国策;（2）生产者需提升管理水平,建立新型养殖模式;（3）管理者应该制定区域化、集约化资源利用和尾水排放、处理标准,建立、完善相关法律法规以及保险制度,强化管控力度。     

森林生态系统养分循环研究进展

养分循环是森林生态系统研究的重要方向之一,人们在系统物流循环、能流平衡、水流循环和生理生态过程研究的基础上,对其进行了广泛而深入的研究。计算机技术和系统分析分室研究法的引入,使森林生态系统养分循环研究从静态转向动态模拟,极大地推动了森林养分循环的研究进程。本文从生态学、生理学及生理生态学角度,综述国内外森林养分循环研究的方法、成果及发展趋势。     

Perception of environmental signals by a marine diatom

Diatoms are a key component of marine ecosystems and are extremely important for the biogeochemical cycling of silica and as contributors to global fixed carbon. However, the answers to fundamental questions such as what diatoms can sense in their environment, how they respond to external signals, and what factors control their life strategies are largely unknown. We generated transgenic diatom cells containing the calcium-sensitive photoprotein aequorin to determine whether changes in calcium homeostasis are used to respond to relevant environmental stimuli. Our results reveal sensing systems for detecting and responding to fluid motion (shear stress), osmotic stress, and iron, a key nutrient that controls diatom abundance in the ocean.