Estimating temporal change in soil monitoring: II. Sampling from simulated fields

Design-based and model-based methods of estimating temporal change of soil properties over a finite area have been compared. Two large fields of auto- and cross-correlated data were simulated, each representing the spatial distribution of a variable at one time. The fields were then sampled repeatedly. The means of stratified and systematic random samples and geostatistical global estimates were used to infer the mean difference between the fields. All estimators were unbiased, but their variances differed. Pairing the positions on the two occasions increased the precision of the design–based estimates. Systematic sampling was slightly more precise than stratified sampling. Kriging was less precise than both because some of the sample information must be used to estimate the variograms at short lags. Neither balanced differences nor the normal formula for simple random sampling predicted the estimation variances of small (n< 50) systematic samples accurately. For larger samples the method of balanced differences performed well. If the spatial variation is unknown in advance and only small samples can be taken then stratified random sampling with two observations per stratum is the preferred design. It resulted in the best combination of precision and accuracy in predicting the sampling error.     

Spatial and temporal variability of urban soil water dynamics observed by a soil monitoring network

Purpose

Urban soils’ variability in the vertical direction presumably affects hydrological parameters at the timescale. Moreover, horizontal soil alterations at small spatial scales are common in urban areas. This spatio-temporal variability and heterogeneity of soil moisture and the possible influencing factors were to be described and quantified, using data of a soil monitoring network in the city of Hamburg, Germany.

Materials and methods

Soil moisture data from ten observation sites within the project HUSCO was evaluated for two different years. The sites were located within districts with different mean groundwater table depths and characteristic urban soil properties. Soil hydrological simulations with SWAP were calculated for a selected site.

Results and discussion

The temporal evolution of soil water content and tension for the sites was very distinct, related to soil substrate, organic matter content, and groundwater table depth. Impacts of different vegetation rooting depths, the soil substrates’ type, and to some extent the degree of disturbance on soil water dynamics could be identified. An impact of groundwater table depth on the water content of the topsoil during low-precipitation periods could be assumed. The comparison of the results of soil hydrological simulations with empirical data indicated an overestimation of infiltration and percolation for the given soil substrates.

Conclusions

While soil properties are mainly determinant for the long-term progression of soil hydrology, local site factors affect the short-term regime. A shallow groundwater table contributes to more constant water dynamics while the relative decrease of water during a dry phase is diminished.

     

Baseline values and change in the soil, and implications for monitoring

The soil is subject to change, and this must be monitored and understood. There are various circumstances in which the change in a soil property will depend in part on the baseline value that was first measured. Such a relationship may allow us to estimate change with greater precision, but it will also reflect in part the statistical phenomenon of regression to the mean. In this paper, we describe two approaches to the analysis of how change in a variable depends on its baseline values. These methods allow for the effect of regression to the mean. We discuss their applicability to the problems of soil monitoring, and we illustrate one of them by means of a case study on change in the organic carbon content of the soils of England and Wales.     

广域岩土体变化监测研究

常规岩土体变化监测方法的局限性造成采用它们来实施大型库区及周边地表形变的持续监测非常困难.为了解决大型水电站库区岩土体的高效实时变化监测这一关键问题,选取乌东德水电站库区为研究区域,根据岩土体变化类型,分别采用D-InSAR技术和假彩色合成技术对库区进行监测,提取出变动区域.最后通过2种方法的监测结果与地面验证结果的比较,验证了变化地点和岩土变动类型与分析结果相一致,达到了发现变化、监视趋势的遥感监测目的.证明了D-InSAR技术和假彩色合成技术相结合用于监测广域岩土体变化的可行性.     

Use of palm-mat geotextiles for soil conservation: I. Effects on soil properties

Despite geotextile-mats having the potential for soil conservation, field studies on the effects of geotextiles on soil properties are limited. Hence, the utilization of palm-mat geotextiles as a potential soil conservation technique was investigated at Hilton, east Shropshire, U.K. (52°33′5.7″ N, 2°19′18.3″ W). Geotextile-mats constructed from Borassus aethiopum (Borassus palm of West Africa) and Mauritia flexuosa (Buriti palm of South America) leaves are termed Borassus mats and Buriti mats, respectively. Field experiments were conducted at Hilton during 2007–2009, to study the impacts of Borassus and Buriti mats on selected properties of the topsoil (0–5 cm). Ten fixed plots (10 × 1 m on a 15° slope) were established, with duplicate treatments. The treatments were: (i) bare soil; (ii) permanent grassed; (iii) bare soil with 1 m Borassus-mat buffer strips (area coverage ~ 10%) at the lower end of the plots; (iv) bare soil with 1 m Buriti mat buffer strips (area coverage ~ 10%) at the lower end of the plots; and (v) completely-covered with Borassus mats. Initial and final soil samples of the topsoil were collected and analysed for bulk density, aggregate stability, soil organic matter (SOM), total soil C (TSC), total soil N (TSN) and pH. Results indicate that, apart from Borassus completely-covered plots, soil bulk density increased and aggregate stability decreased in all plots after two years. Despite decreases in SOM contents in bare plots, SOM content did not change after two years in the grassed and geotextile treated plots. Treatments had no effects on changes in pH, TSC or TSN. Both Borassus and Buriti mat-covers within the buffer strip plots had little impact on SOM, TSC and TSN changes compared with bare soils within the same plots. Thus, Borassus buffer strip plots were very effective in maintaining some soil properties (i.e. SOM, TSC, and TSN) after two years of erosion by water. In summary, utilization of Borassus mats as buffer strips was very successful in conserving soil properties on a loamy sand soil.     

Spatio‐temporal change of soil organic matter content of Jiangsu Province,China, based on digital soil maps

Estimation of spatio‐temporal change of soil is needed for various purposes. Commonly used methods for the estimation have some shortcomings. To estimate spatio‐temporal change of soil organic matter (SOM) in Jiangsu province, China, this study explored benefits of digital soil maps (DSM) by handling mapping uncertainty using stochastic simulation. First, SOM maps on different dates, the 1980s and 2006–2007, were constructed using robust geostatistical methods. Then, sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS) was used to generate 500 realizations of SOM in the area for the two dates. Finally, E‐type (i.e. conditional mean) temporal change of SOM and its associated uncertainty, probability and confidence interval were computed. Results showed that SOM increased in 70% of Jiangsu province and decreased in the remaining 30% during the past decades. As a whole, SOM increased by 0.22% on average. Spatial variance of SOM diminished, but the major spatial pattern was retained. The maps of probability and confidence intervals for SOM change gave more detailed information and credibility about this change. Comparatively, variance of spatio‐temporal change of SOM derived using SGS was much smaller than sum of separate kriging variances for the two dates, because of lower mapping variances derived using SGS. This suggests an advantage of the method based on digital soil maps with uncertainty dealt with using SGS for deriving spatio‐temporal change in soil.     

基于EPO-PLS回归模型的盐渍化土壤含水率高光谱反演

表层土壤含水率对于指导农业灌溉有重要的作用。研究表明,土壤光谱受到土壤水分和盐分的共同影响,但对于盐渍化地区的土壤含水率高光谱反演却很少涉及。该文通过对11组不同含盐量土壤室内蒸发过程连续监测,获取相关反射率光谱和水分、盐分的变化数据,利用外部参数正交化方法(external parameter orthogonalisation,EPO)预处理土壤光谱,滤除盐分(质量比0.1%~5.0%)的影响,建立经过EPO预处理后的偏最小二乘(partial least squares regression after EPO pre-processing,EPO-PLS)土壤水分预测模型。与偏最小二乘(partial least square model,PLS)模型相比,验证样本的决定系数R2和对分析误差RPD(residual predictive deviation)分别从0.722、1.976上升到0.898、3.145;均方根误差RMSE从5.087 g/(100 g)减少到3.237 g/(100 g)。通过EPO算法预处理后的模型性能提升显著,利用该方法能够有效的消除土壤盐分的影响,很好地实现盐渍化地区的水分含量估测。     

Subsoil compaction in a clay soil. I. Cumulative effects

A 3-year investigation was carried out on the effect of annual compaction by 10- and 20-t axle⁻¹ loads applied at 2 soil moisture contents on bulk densities and on corn (Zea mays L.) yields in a clay soil. Maximum bulk densities, and the depth at which they occurred, increased with each annual loading. Only the 20-t axle⁻¹ loading increased soil density when compacting under dry conditions. However, both loading levels led to increases in density when applied under relatively wet conditions. Under the latter conditions, moldboard plowing and overwintering did not fully relieve topsoil compaction. Trends in crop responses to compaction were similar to those of soil bulk density. However, corn yield reductions were much more pronounced than were changes in soil structure. Differences in yields between the effects of each loading level increased with annual compaction.     

Québec Lake Survey: I. Statistical assessment of surface water quality

The Québec Lake Survey (QLS) was conducted as part of the Québec Spatial Lake Acidity monitoring network (RESSALQ). A total of 1253 lakes were visited at winter-time between 1986 and 1990, to quantify and to extrapolate the water quality status of a statistically representative set of lakes to the target lake population of five subregions. Water quality is strongly influenced by terrain characteristics. The airborne anthropogenic pollution also influences greatly the water chemistry of lakes in areas receiving high SO₄ depositions. Within the QLS study area, the Côte-Nord subregion is the most sensitive and the most affected by acidity. Yet, these acidic conditions can be mostly explained by the combination of an important organic acid contribution and the extreme sensitivity of the area. The Outaouais and Abitibi areas also present great proportions of acidic lakes. The acidity of these lakes originates mostly from anthropogenic sources.     

Nitrous oxide fluxes from grassland in the Netherlands: I. Statistical analysis of flux-chamber measurements

Accurate estimates of total nitrous oxide (N₂O) losses from grasslands derived from flux-chamber measurements are hampered by the large spatial and temporal variability of N₂O fluxes from these sites. In this study, four methods for the calculation of mean N₂O fluxes (n= 6) on total N₂O losses are compared, namely the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, the lognormal mean and the mean derived from Finney's method. Mean fluxes were calculated from weekly flux measurements on grassland at four contrasting sites in the Netherlands with three management treatments each. Total losses were calculated by interpolation of the mean fluxes and integration over time. Spatial variation of N₂O fluxes was large. The geometric mean was generally much smaller, up to a factor of 7, than the arithmetic mean. The lognormal mean was much larger, up to a factor of 11, than the arithmetic mean, possibly because this estimator is biased for small sample size. Arithmetic means and Finney's method were generally in reasonable agreement. The order in estimated N₂O loss increased in the order geometric meann = 6), the uncertainty about the precise frequency distribution, the sensitivity of estimators based on logtransformed data, and the problems associated with negative fluxes, the arithmetic mean was preferred as the most appropriate estimator. Evidently, the choice of an estimator of the mean can have great effects on the estimation of total N₂O losses.     

Simulating soil deformation using a critical-state model: I. Laboratory tests

The paper examines the ability of a critical-state model to predict stresses and deformations of agricultural soil in a variety of laboratory shear and compression tests. The critical-state model used is a simple extension to the well-known Modified Cam Clay model. The extension provides a smoother transition from elastic to plastic behaviour and, amongst other things, introduces a capacity to model cyclic loading. The model is incorporated into a finite-element program. The model predictions are compared with: experimental observations of simple and direct shear tests with both constant normal stress and constant volume conditions; cyclic uniaxial compression tests; compaction tests in U-shaped and V-shaped boxes; and observations of some gross structural features caused by shear in direct-shear boxes. Predictions are made for both the compressing, strain-hardening and the expanding, strain-softening regimes of behaviour. In all cases the material properties for the model were obtained from tests other than those being used for the comparisons. The model predictions generally compare well with the various experimental results, although some numerical problems were encountered in strain-softening conditions. This demonstrates the versatility of the critical-state model for predicting fairly general stress and, deformation conditions in unsaturated soils using only five material-property constants. It also demonstrates that common laboratory strength and compression tests are adequate to measure the material properties.     

One-dimensional image analysis of soil structure. I. Principles

A one-dimensional (1-D) image analysis system, ANOSOL, has been developed which uses test lines to measure the distances in a random direction across and between pore space in images of impregnated soil blocks. Suitable strategies are discussed for both random and systematic sampling using test lines. A comprehensive set of interrelated 1-D parameters are derived for use as structural indices and their stereological relationship to 3-D parameters is discussed. The intercept length distributions for both pore space and solid can be adequately described using a three-parameter model consisting of the weighted sum of two negative exponential functions. The advantages of the parameters chosen are discussed with references to those used by other workers. The importance of choosing, as structural indices, parameters that are stereologically related to the desired 3-D parameters is also discussed.     

Estimating soil surface temperatures under different crop covers in Hawaii

Abstract

Data from experiments conducted in Hawaii, measuring soil surface temperatures in plots cropped with potato, cassava, and maize, were used to estimate soil surface temperatures using a model from the temperate zone. According to this model maximum soil surface temperature under a given vegetative cover can be estimated from maximum air temperature and a factor, Et, that represents the elevation of maximum soil surface temperature over maximum air temperature under that crop cover. Inputs for the model are: maximum air temperatures and plant biomass measurements. A generally good agreement between estimated and observed maximum soil surface temperatures was obtained when Et was arbitrarily set to 0.1 × Et. For potato during summer of 1985, maximum soil surface temperature estimates were within an average of less than 2C of observed surface temperatures and with a deviation of no more than 3.8C. For cassava during summer of 1986, estimates were within 2.3±5.1C; for maize during summer of 1988, estimates were within 2.7±4.4C.     

An equivalent soil mass procedure for monitoring soil organic carbon in multiple soil layers

Soil carbon stocks are commonly quantified at fixed depths as the product of soil bulk density, depth and organic carbon (OC) concentration. However, this method systematically overestimates OC stocks in treatments with greater bulk densities such as minimum tillage, exaggerating their benefits. Its use has compromised estimates of OC change where bulk densities differed between treatments or over time periods. We argue that its use should be discontinued and a considerable body of past research re‐evaluated. Accurate OC estimations must be based on quantification in equivalent soil masses (ESMs). The objective of this publication is to encourage accurate quantification of changes in OC stocks and other soil properties using ESM procedures by developing a simple procedure to quantify OC in multiple soil layers. We explain errors inherent in fixed depth procedures and show how these errors are eliminated using ESM methods. We describe a new ESM procedure for calculating OC stocks in multiple soil layers and show that it can be implemented without bulk density sampling, which reduces sampling time and facilitates evaluations at greater depths, where bulk density sampling is difficult. A spreadsheet has been developed to facilitate calculations. A sample adjustment procedure is described to facilitate OC quantification in a single equivalent soil mass layer from the surface, when multiple‐layer quantification is not necessary.     

Driving factors of temporal variation in agricultural soil respiration

Investigations of diurnal and seasonal variations in soil respiration support modeling of regional CO₂ budgets and therefore in estimating their potential contribution to greenhouse gases. This study quantifies temporal changes in soil respiration and their driving factors in grassland and arable soils located in Northern Germany. Field measurements at an arable site showed diurnal mean soil respiration rates between 67 and 99 mg CO₂ m^–2 h^–1 with a hysteresis effect following changes in mean soil temperatures. Field soil respiration peaked in April at 5767 mg CO₂ m^–2 day^–1, while values below 300 mg CO₂ m^–2 day^–1 were measured in wintertime. Laboratory incubations were carried out in dark open flow chambers at temperatures from 5°C to 40°C, with 5°C intervals, and soil moisture was controlled at 30%, 50%, and 70% of full water holding capacity. Respiration rates were higher in grassland soils than in arable soils when the incubating temperature exceeded 15°C. The respiration rate difference between them rose with increasing temperature. Monthly median values of incubated soil respiration rates ranged from 0 to 26.12 and 0 to 7.84 µg CO₂ g^–1 dry weight h^–1, respectively, in grassland and arable land. A shortage of available substrate leads to a temporal decline in soil respiration rates, as indicated by a decrease in dissolved organic carbon. Temporal Q₁₀ values decreased from about 4.0 to below 1.5 as temperatures increased in the field. Moreover, the results of our laboratory experiments confirmed that soil temperature is the main controlling factor for the Q₁₀ values. Within the temperature interval between 20°C and 30°C, Q₁₀ values were around 2 while the Q₁₀ values of arable soils were slightly lower compared to that of grassland soils. Thus, laboratory studies may underestimate temperature sensitivity of soil respiration, awareness for transforming laboratory data to field conditions must therefore be taken into account.     

夏玉米冠层温度变化的时滞效应及其对土壤水分监测的影响

考虑冠层温度变化的时滞效应,可能在一定程度上能够提高土壤含水率的监测精度。该研究以灌浆期的夏玉米为研究对象,利用精密红外温度传感器（SI-411）连续监测I1（田间持水量的85%～100%）、I2（田间持水量的70%～85%）和I3（田间持水量的50%～65%）3个不同水分处理下的冠层温度,并同步获取试验地地面净辐射、大气温度、空气相对湿度等环境因子数据,以及不同水分处理小区0～10、0～20、0～30、0～40、0～60 cm不同深度处土壤含水率数据,利用高斯函数拟合冠层温度及环境因子日变化过程以此确定拟合曲线的峰值时刻,通过峰值时间差确定两者之间的时滞关系,并利用多元线性回归分析确定冠层温度的主要影响因素,最后在考虑冠层温度与主要影响因素之间时滞关系的基础上,分析冠层温度变化的时滞效应对监测土壤含水率的影响。结果表明：不同水分处理下的冠层温度峰值具有较大差异,峰值大小依次为I3、I2、I1;I1、I2、I3水分处理的冠层温度峰值时刻分别滞后净辐射约70、70、100 min,超前大气温度和相对湿度约60、60、30 min;冠层温度变化的主要影响因素为大气温度,其次为地面净辐射,最后为相对湿度;考虑时滞效应的冠气温差与土壤含水率的相关性更高,考虑时滞效应的冠气温差对土壤含水率的监测效果有一定提升。研究可为利用作物生理特性提高土壤水分监测精度提供参考。     

山西省农田土壤肥力现状及近10年变化特征

明确山西省农业生产中土壤肥力的变化特征以及当前土壤肥力水平,为更好地管理山西省不同区域农田土壤资源和培肥改良土壤提供依据。基于中国科学院重要创新方向性项目,在山西省设置75个农田土壤质量演变定位监测点,于2007和2017年对山西省农田土壤pH值、有机质、全氮、有效磷及速效钾含量数据进行分析,总结山西省农田土壤肥力现状及近10年变化特征。结果表明:(1)2017年山西省农田土壤pH值平均为8.32,有机质含量平均为18.72 g·kg-1,全氮含量平均为1.07 g·kg-1,有效磷含量平均为14.51 mg·kg-1,速效钾含量平均为184.81 mg·kg-1。(2)山西省不同地区土壤肥力存在显著差异,pH值南低北高,有机质含量由中部向四周逐渐降低,全氮和速效钾含量南高北低,有效磷含量中部地区低于其他地区。(3)与2007年相比,2017年山西省农田土壤有机质含量有所增加,全氮和速效钾含量大幅提高,pH值和有效磷含量略有降低,但在不同地区间土壤肥力变化有所差异。晋南、晋中地区有机质呈增加趋势,而晋东南、晋西北地区则呈下降趋势;晋中、晋西北地区有效磷含量下降明显,而晋北、晋东南地区则显著上升。可见,在山西省目前的农业生产中,应增施有机肥,推广秸秆还田,化肥施用上根据不同地区采取平衡施氮、稳钾、因地补磷的施用原则,以实现山西省农田土壤肥力与生产能力同步稳定提升。