Use of Chromameter‐Measured Color Parameters in Estimating Color‐Related Soil Variables

Abstract

Soil color is a soil property that may be used as an interpreting index in estimating processes and properties. Quantifying color allows one to obtain information for rapidly estimating the related processes in soils. CIELAB color parameters L*, a*, and b* of ground (air‐dried and sieved) soil samples and aggregate surfaces of four soil profiles formed in calcareous colluviums in northern Turkey were analyzed. Values of color parameters measured in ground and intact soils were compared and related to soil properties by the regression technique. Results revealed that the L* value obtained with a ground soil sample was a significant predictor of organic matter in A horizons (p < 0.001). Although calcic horizons yielded the highest L* values, no significant relationship was obtained between calcium carbonate contents and lightness of soils in any of horizons studied. The parameters of b* could adequately be used to quantify dithionite‐extractable iron oxide contents in soils studied. The results further showed that the CIELAB color parameters obtained with ground samples were more informative than that of aggrevated samples in relating color parameters to soil properties.     

The genesis and classification of soils on wet terraces and moraines in New Zealand

Six soils on glacial outwash terraces and one on moraine are discussed; four are formed partly in loess of unknown age. Evidence of podzolization is apparent in all profiles, but the vertical drainage under very high rainfall is insufficient to remove surplus water. Gley processes appear to dominate, in a perched-water environment.
Podzolic B horizons were identified in the same five profiles following both the Canadian system and that used by the Soil Survey of England and Wales. However, only three of these profiles could be allocated to existing podzolic subgroups in the latter system. Spodic horizons were identified in a different group of five profiles. Differences in classification are discussed with reference to the criteria used and in relation to proposals for revision of the New Zealand Soil Classification.     

亚热带山地草甸土性态的变异及其在中国土壤系统分类中的地位

为了解我国亚热带地区山地草甸土性态的变化和成土特点,从福建、浙江、江西、安徽、湖南和贵州等省采集了20个代表性山地草甸土剖面,详细观察了土壤剖面形态特征,分析了土壤颗粒组成、有机质、阳离子交换量(CEC)、酸度、氧化铁形态和黏土矿物类型等指标,并从诊断分类的角度探讨了它们在中国土壤系统分类中的地位。结果表明:这一地区的山地草甸土表层有机质积累均非常明显,颜色普遍呈黑色和深褐色,土壤酸化明显,土壤氧化铁游离度多在40%以下,土壤CEC较高。但研究也发现,不同样点之间土壤的土体厚度、剖面构型、黏化状况、有机质垂直分布、氧化铁含量、矿物类型及其诊断层和诊断特性均有较大的差异。土体构型大致有Ah-C、Ah-Bw-C、Ah-Bt-C和Ah-G-C等4类。根据中国土壤系统分类的诊断标准,可把研究的20个剖面归并为均腐土、潜育土、淋溶土、雏形土和新成土等5个土纲,下续分为6个亚纲、10个土类和15个亚类。研究认为,在地理发生分类中笼统地把这些土壤归为一个土类存在边界不明确等问题。     

Lessivage and its relation to the hydrological regime of soils

By the examples of four typical catenas in the East European Plain, the role of lessivage in the development of automorphic and hydromorphic loamy and clayey soils with light-colored acid eluvial horizons and with different degrees of gleyzation has been studied. It is found that characteristic features of lessivage are often observed in the soils without hydrological barriers hampering or preventing the vertical migration of soil water and mass transfer processes. The hydrological barriers may be represented by the shallow horizons of temporarily perched water, or by the ascending capillary fringe of the ground water, or by the water-saturated horizons, in which the volume of free pores does not exceed 2–4%. It is shown that light-colored acid eluvial horizons may be formed in the profiles of loamy and clayey soils without any signs of lessivage. The development of strongly gleyed soils (gleyed soddy-podzolic soils and pseudogley soils (Stagnosols)) is not related to colmatage (silting of their illuvial horizons through lessivage); it is conditioned by the actual hydrological regime of these soils. The role of lessivage, podzolization, and gleyzation in the development of clay-differentiated soils is discussed.     

Clay illuviation and calcium carbonate accumulation along a precipitation gradient in Kansas

One of the significant features of loess-derived soils in Kansas is the occurrence of clay-rich subsurface horizons above a layer enriched with pedogenic carbonates. In order to examine the extent of clay increase and pedogenic carbonate enrichment in a precipitation gradient, ten soil profiles from three different precipitation regions were studied using micromorphological and mineralogical techniques. The precipitation gradient was divided into three groups: 400–550 mm, 550–750 mm, and 750–1100 mm regions. The objectives were to (1) understand the cause of clay orientation in clay-rich horizons (2) investigate the reasons for the clay increase, and (3) observe the interaction of clay and pedogenic carbonate accumulation features along a precipitation gradient in Kansas. Although clay films were identified in the field for soils in the 400–550 mm regions, illuvial clay films were not observed in thin section analysis. The clay accumulations mostly occurred as grain coatings. The rest of the clay accumulations observed were very thin, striated, and mostly associated with voids. The argillic horizons had a granostriated b-fabric, which indicates stress orientation of micromass caused by high shrink–swell activity. Thick and continuous illuvial coatings were observed in the buried horizons of paleosols. In the other two regions where precipitation exceeds 550 mm, illuvial clay coatings with strong orientation were observed along with thin and striated stress-oriented clay. Both types of clay orientations exceeded 1% of the cross-sectional area for the thin section. Although illuvial clay features and pedogenic carbonates were observed in all soils at approximately the same depth, complete obliteration of clay coatings was not observed in these horizons. In-situ weathering of biotite was one of the reasons for the clay increase in all soil profiles. In all soils studied, the clay increase and cause of clay orientation cannot be attributed to a single genetic process or event. Both illuviation and shrink–swell activity were involved in the orientation of clay. Although orientation of clay and pedogenic carbonates were observed in all soils at approximately the same depth, the decomposition of clay coatings was not observed in these horizons.     

Podzolization and clay migration in spodosols of eastern France

Field observations and laboratory analyses of podzols developed on sandy Triassic parent material in the Vosges have demonstrated clay accumulation in the upper parts of spodic horizons, especially in the B_h horizons. To see whether clay accumulation corresponds to real clay illuviation, two types of podzol profiles have been studied. The first is an iron podzol, called “podzol forestier”, because it has been entirely developed under climax forest environment. The second, an iron-humus podzol, called “podzol de dégradation”, was first developed under forest and more recently (the last 1000 to 2000 years) under heath vegetation. Methods used in the study of the two profiles were the “isoquartz” alteration balance, clay mineral identification by X-ray analyses and micromorphholigical examination.For the podzol forestier, the data strongly support a hypothesis of illuviation of very fine micaceous clays (vermiculite), especially the ferriargillans in the B_h horizon. Consequently, it is believed that illuviation of the greatest part of clays promoted differentiation of podzol horizons. Podzolization is strongly redistributive.In the podzol de dégradation, the identified clay minerals are the same as in the podzol forestier but the pedological features in the B_h horizon correspond to those of classic spodic horizons (mixed concentration and grain coatings). Moreover, podzolization is geochemically strongly subtractive in this second type of podzol.Inasmuch as the podzols de dégradation are developed from the podzols forestiers, the authors define an evolutionary time-sequence: the first phase of forest soil genesis is regulated by the double process of clay illuviation and redistributive podzolization. The following degradation phase connected to the particular nature of heath vegetation and to abundant chelating organic compounds induces the disruption of the ferriargillans previously formed in the B_h horizon, the formation of an agglomeroplasmic fabric microstructure and above all, the elimination of hydrolyzed products of minerals from the profile. During this last phase, a strongly subtractive podzolization prevails over clay illuviation.     

Morphometric profiles of pore space in loamy soils of the forest and steppe zones of European Russia

A computer-based image analysis of vertically oriented thin sections was applied to study changes in the shape and orientation of fine soil macropores (d = 0.2−2.0 mm) in the profiles of soddy-podzolic soils and typical (migrational-mycelial) chernozems. Generalization of the obtained morphometric data was based on the theory of mereology, a scientific discipline studying the structure (part-whole relationships) of classified objects. As a first approximation, generalized data characterized archetypes of morphometric porespace profiles of the studied soils. The archetype of the pore-space profile of the soddy-podzolic soil consists of four components (meronyms) corresponding to the humus-accumulative, eluvial, textural (clay-illuvial), and transitional to the parent material (BC) horizons. Sharp boundaries between the upper horizons specify sharp changes in the studied meronomic indices of the shape and orientation of soil pores. The pore-space profile of the migrational-mycelial chernozem consists of two major components: specific pores in the granular dark-humus (AU) horizon and complex pore space of the BCA and BCca horizons that are poorly differentiated with respect to the shape and orientation of their fine macropores despite clear genetic differences between these horizons. Pore-space patterns in the lower (transitional to the parent material) horizons of the studied soils are characterized by the high degree of similarity (>75%). Pore-space patterns in the upper horizons of the studied soils are different; the level of their similarity does not exceed 24–41.5%. The results obtained in this study hold promise in the use of morphometric characteristics of the pore space in separate genetic soil horizons as meronyms composing archetypes of the pore-space profiles of different soils. Such archetypes may be used for diagnostic purposes as reference pore-space profiles of the particular types of soils.     

陇东和陇中黑垆土的发生与演变

前人认为，我国黑垆土是现代草原环境条件下形成的。我们通过对陇东和陇中黑垆土理化性质分析，１４Ｃ年代和孢粉组成的测定。认为这里的黑垆土是由深色埋藏古土壤层和浅色表土覆盖层叠加构成。剖面呈两段性构造。古土壤层由晚更新世晚期开始发育，主要成壤于全新世中期，具有与现代成土环境不相符合的深厚腐殖质蓄积层，理化性质，孢粉成分等残遗埋藏特性。浅色表土层是全新世晚期气候传向旱型化条件下发育的土壤，其性质和现代成土     

Factors of the development of taiga and tundra soils with differentiation of Fe and Al oxides in the profile

Statistical data on the bulk contents of iron and aluminum oxides in iron-depleted and iron-enriched horizons of a wide range of taiga and tundra soils were compared. It was found that the soils could be arranged into the following sequence characterized by an increase in the relative contribution of iron oxides and a decrease in the relative contribution of aluminum oxides to the differentiation of sesquioxides in the soil profiles: sandy podzols—soddy-podzolic soils—loamy micropodzols and iron-illuvial svetlozems—cryogenic ferruginated gleyzems. It was concluded that the bleaching of eluvial horizons and the depletion of sesquioxides from them, as well as the accumulation of sesquioxides in the illuvial horizons, are controlled by different processes in different soils. In sandy podzols, the differentiation of sesquioxides is due to the Al-Fe-humus podzolization; in loamy micropodzols and iron-illuvial svetlozems, due to the redox-Al-Fe-humus podzolization; in podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils, due to the selective podzolization and lessivage; and, in cryogenic ferruginated gleyzems, due to the reduction-oxidation processes.     

红壤性水稻土可溶态稀土分布特征及与酸度调控的关系

测定了具有代表性的4种母质发育、3种水育型的红壤性水稻土及起源土壤的可溶性稀土(REEs)和稀土总丰度(∑REE),分析了REEs的分布特征及与∑REE的相关,研究了经酸碱调节后土壤REEs与pH值的关系,结果表明:(1)不同母质发育的供试土壤REEs平均值依石英闪长岩母质土壤系列、凝灰岩母质土壤系列、黑云母花岗岩母质土壤系列、玄武岩母质土壤系列顺序递减。(2)供试土壤REEs与∑REE的相关不显著。(3)起源土壤剖面中REEs具有明显自上而下增大的趋势,而不同水育型水稻土剖面的REEs分布各有特征,但总的趋势是自上而下减少。(4)经酸度调节后供试土壤的REEs随着土壤pH值的提高而下降,呈显著的幂函数相关。     

Iron oxides in four Red Mediterranean soils on metarhyolite and metadolerite in Kilkis,Greece

The various iron fractions were quantified by selective dissolution (Fe_d, Fe_o, Fe_t) in four Red Mediterranean soils, developed on metarhyolite and metadolerite. They were similar in all profiles. A strong trend of iron removal from the surface horizon and of its subsequent illuvial translocation to the argillic horizons was observed. In all profiles, Fe_o was not related to the organic matter content indicating the Mediterranean xeric soil environment. The Fe_o/Fe_d ratio and the percentage of crystalline iron oxides (Fe_d-Fe_o) suggested that the pedoenvironment in which the profiles P1, P2 were formed, allowed the high crystallization of iron oxides. As indicated by the Fe_d/Fe_t values, the weathering process was more intense in the metarhyolite-developed soils. In contrast, the metadolerite-developed soils present conditions of poorly crystallized iron oxides and a lower degree of development.     

Über die Sorptionseigenschaften von Waldböden bezüglich gelöster organischer Substanzen

About the sorption of dissolved organic matter to forest soils This investigation characterizes the major forest soils of the temperate climatic zones (leptosols, vertisols, cambisols, luvisols, podzols, stagnosols, gleysols) as sorbents for dissolved organic matter (DOM). Sorption isotherms were obtained for 135 soil horizons from 36 profiles. When solutions containing no DOC were added, the release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was highest for horizons rich in organic C (A and Bh horizons). In subsoil horizons DOC release was much lower. Most of the investigated top soils (A and E horizons) and Bh, Bg, and C horizons showed a weak DOC sorption. This was caused by low contents of sorbents (clay and sesquioxides) and/or high contents of organic C. Organic C seems to reduce the DOC sorption by occupying binding sites. Subsoils rich in clay and sesquioxides like Bs, Bt, and Bw horizons showed a strong retention of DOC. Under the aerobic conditions of the experiments, some of the subsoils of stagnosols and gleysols also showed a strong sorption of DOC. However, in sorption experiments conducted after an anaerobic incubation, the DOC sorption decreased significantly.     

九宫山土壤剖面中黏土矿物的组成特征

以湖北省九宫山的4种垂直地带性土壤为对象,研究其剖面层次的黏土矿物组合和铁、铝氧化物的特征,揭示山地土壤中黏土矿物的变化特点。结果表明,随海拔升高,土壤中黏土矿物类型从以高岭石为主,逐渐变为以14.0?矿物、伊利石及三水铝石为主,有从1︰1型向2︰1型矿物过渡的趋势;不同层次的土壤中黏土矿物类型和相对含量变化明显;土壤随垂直高程的升高,其中游离态铁、铝减小,非晶形和络合态铁、铝增加,各种形态铁、铝氧化物的总量也增加。     

The morphology and genesis of eight surface-water gley soils developed in till in England and Wales

The morphology is described of eight surface-water gley soils developed in til in Wales and central and northern England. Physical and chemical analyses as well as micromorphological observations are used to investigate processes affecting the genesis of the soils. The characteristic property of surface-water gley soils, namely slowly permeable subsurface horizons, causes a degree of periodie waterlogging within the profile. Effects of gleying and shrink/swell processes are described. Three main aspects of weathering are shown to be operating: decalcification in two of the three calcareous profiles, the breakdown of coarse into finer particles and the alteration of the clay fraction, chiefly the formation of mixed-layer minerals from mica. Argillic B horizons are present in some soils. In profiles developed in calcareous till the degree of decalcification relates strongly to the amounts of recognizable clay concentrations as seen in thin section. Of the other five profiles three clearly have argillic B horizons. Problems associated with the identification of argillic B horizons in surface-water gley soils in till are discussed.     

在伊朗中部源于第三纪沉积物的土壤上影响坡缕石的发生因素研究

Limited information is available on the distribution and origin of palygorskite in soils developed on Tertiary sediments as the major soil parent materials in central Iran and other Middle Eastern countries. The objectives of this study were to determine the distribution and origin of palygorskite in soils developed on Tertiary sediments, and to identify the major soil properties that influence palygorskite distribution in the soils studied. Sixteen soil profiles developed on Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Oligocene-Miocene, Miocene and Pliocene sediments were studied by X-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscope, and scanning electron microscopy. Physicochemical characteristics of the soils and sediments including particle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, gypsum, carbonates, and soluble Si, Ca and Mg were determined. The principal component analysis was used to establish the relationships between palygorskite and the physicochemical characteristics of the soils studied. Results showed that clay fraction of all the soils in the study area was dominated by palygorskite. The highest amount of palygorskite was found in horizons where simultaneous accumulation of both carbonates and gypsum occurred. Limited amount of palygorskite was found in salic and calcic horizons. Palygorskite seemed to be of eolian origin in the surface horizon of all the soils. Using principal component analysis, the soluble Mg/Ca ratio, pH, soluble Si and gypsum contents were identified as the most important factors affecting the distribution and genesis of palygorskite in the soils studied. Results might suggest the neoformation of palygorskite by precipitation from solutions in which evaporation fluxes were very high. However, palygorskite in soils developed on Tertiary sediments in central Iran seems to be of both inherited and pedogenic origins.     

Textural differentiation in chronosequences from eastern australia,II. evidence from particle-size distributions

Data from particle-size analyses were used to determine the relative importance of the four mechanisms proposed to explain the development of strong textural contrast in the end members of four chronosequences. The mechanisms proposed were sedimentary layering, in-situ chemical weathering, clay illuviation and physical breakdown.Depth functions of fine clay: total clay ratios and detailed particle-size distributions at ø intervals from 0.6 μm to 2000 μm indicated that there had been a marked increase in fine clay in the B horizons of the older soils of each sequence, a result consistent with, but not proving, a clay illuviation hypothesis. Cumulative particle-size distribution indices showed that most profiles had texturally uniform parent materials. Changes in the ratio fine silt : total silt with depth were slight for all but one profile, indicating no significant contribution to the clay fraction by in-situ chemical weathering of the silt fraction.From changes in the depth functions of gravel with time, it was concluded that physical breakdown had occurred but that it had not been responsible for the development of the textural B horizon. The rate of disintegration was particularly high early in pedogenesis, preceding the development of texture-contrast. Breakdown contributed fines to the whole solum and was not generally any more intense in one horizon than another. Grain counts of rock fragments in the medium sand range lent support to this conclusion.Changes in the particle-size distribution of quartz from 0.2 μm to 2000 μm indicated that the contribution to the clay fraction from physical disintegration was only slight.     

Radiometric Study of Soil Profiles in the Infrared Band

The applicability of radiometric survey of soil profiles in the infrared range for the analysis of soil physical properties was studied. Radiometric data were obtained for different dates of the growing season for a number of soil profiles. The specificity of temperature profiles of texture-differentiated soils (Luvisols and Retisols) as related to weather conditions of the growing season was examined. The correlation analysis showed a close relationship between the air and surface soil temperatures and between the radiometric and thermodynamic soil temperatures in the upper 10 cm. In the studied profiles, the gradient of radiometric temperatures reached 0.5–0.8°C/cm in the humus horizons and sharply decreased at the depth of more than 15–20 cm. The gradient analysis of radiometric images made it possible to outline the boundaries of soil horizons. For the texture-differentiated soils, the most distinct boundaries were established between the gray-humus AY horizon and the underlying eluvial EL horizon in podzolic soils and between the AY horizon and the underlying humus-eluvial AEL horizon in gray soils.     

Transformation of old-plowed gray forest soils under the influence of differently aged pine forests in the middle Angara River region

The long-term (55–85 years) influence of pine forests on old-plowed gray forest soils (in the middle Angara River basin) has been reflected in the character of the biological cycle and intensity of the biological processes. The population of actinomycetes decreased, and that of fungi increased, within the whole profiles of these soils. The soil profiles became more differentiated according to eluvial-illuvial types. The thickness of the humus (former plowed) horizons decreased. The thicker differently decomposed litter with the abundant fungal mycelium was formed. The most conservative were relic morphological characteristics: plow sole, humus tongues, and the illuvial-metamorphic horizon.     

Etude de la nutrition potassique du sorgho II‐ incidence du remplacement du potassium par le sodium sur la teneur en acides organiques des feuilles

Abstract

An Investigation was conducted to determine the content and distribution of total and DTPA‐extractable Zn in the genetic horizons of 72 agriculturally important soils from the six major mineral soil areas in Louisiana.

The concentration of total Zn appeared to vary more with the clay constituents of the soils and the amount of the element in the parent materials than with soil depth. The majority of the soils had the largest amounts of total Zn in the subsurface horizons. The range in total Zn for all soils and horizons was from 7.0 to 150.0 ppm.

The DTPA‐extractable Zn in all of the soils and horizons ranged from 0.08 to 4.22 ppm. In the majority of the soil profiles the highest concentration of extractable Zn was in the surface horizons. There was a decrease in the extractable Zn with increasing soil depth. The alluvial soils along the Ouachita and Mississippi Rivers, and the Mississippi Terrace soil areas contained relatively large amounts of DTPA‐extractable Zn.

In some soils the extractable Zn significantly correlated with total Zn. There was also a close relationship between extractable Zn and organic matter content, especially in the Ap horizons.     

Mineralogy of some Italian andosols with special reference to the origin of the clay fraction

The mineralogy of four Italian Andosols - derived from volcanic material either oversaturated or undersaturated with respect to silica - has been investigated by XRD, EM and IR. The crystalline clay minerals in all four profiles are essentially similar, consisting of abundant halloysite with moderate illite and 14A intergrade material, minor kaolinite and occasional gibbsite. The soils also contain large amounts of imogolite and proto-imogolite allophane. With the exception of illite all these clay minerals are believed to be of pedogenic origin. Halloysite occurs in the dehydrated form in the surface horizons but becomes progressively more hydrated with depth. At depths of > 1.4 m the clay fraction consists almost entirely of fully hydrated halloysite, supporting the suggestion that halloysite forms best in a stagnant moisture regime where there is a depositional overburden acting as a silica source. EM observations show that the halloysite may have spherical morphology and may be intimately associated with gas vesicles in pumice grains where it probably forms by the transformation of allophanic material. It seems likely that dehydrated halloysite slowly converts to poorly crystallized kaolinite in the upper horizons of these profiles. The origin of the 2/1 minerals is more problematical. Illite is probably inherited from mica in the parent material but the 14A intergrade material is so poorly ordered that a pedogenic origin seems more likely than formation by inheritance or by transformation of pre-existing 2/1 silicates.