Effect of season and different fungi on phenolics in response to xylem wounding and inoculation in Eucalyptus nitens

Pot‐grown and plantation‐grown Eucalyptus nitens trees (approximately 2 and 3 years old, respect‐ively) were experimentally wounded and inoculated with different fungi and in different seasons. Decay lesion development and defence zones were assessed. Two zones were described, a narrow brown decay interface (interface reaction zone, IRZ) and a diffuse zone beyond this being either pale brown or purple (reaction zone, RZ). The total phenol levels in the reaction zone were determined. Selected phenolics (pedunculagin, tellimagrandin 1, tetragalloylglucose, pentagalloylglucose and catechin) were quantified by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). A range of fungi (mainly decay‐causing) were used to inoculate wounds and the results indicated that more extensive decay lesions were generally associated with greater production of soluble phenols in response. Sterile inoculations and weakly aggressive fungi were associated with no or little xylem discoloration, whereas aggressive fungi elicited more discoloration and phenolic accumulation in advance of infection. This indicates that phenol accumulation is not a generalized response to wounding, but a variable response due to the interaction between microorganisms and sapwood. In plantation‐grown trees examined 6 months after wounding, purple reaction zones were commonly associated with large decay lesions. Seasonal differences in decay column area caused by Ganoderma applanatum were not significant 1 month after wounding and inoculation.     

Fungal inoculation induces agarwood in young Aquilaria malaccensis trees in the nursery

Fungi are often used to induce agarwood inAquilariatrees. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of several fungi on agarwood formation over time in youngAquilaria malaccensis （Lam.） trees. Typical changes in the length and light intensity of the resulting discoloration were observed after three and six month periods following inoculation. Wood samples were observed microscopically and classified into several light intensity groups. The discoloration length was meas-ured longitudinally. The duration after inoculation affected the mean of discoloration length： the 6-month old sample （1.70 cm） had a wider discoloration zone when compared to the 3-month old sample （1.17 cm）. When measuring the discoloration intensity, a positive relationship with time was perceived. Digital images, captured using a camera-equipped microscope, revealed that wood samples collected after six months appeared to be 1.8-times darker than after three months. We concluded that time, not the species of any of the tested fungi, had significant effect on discoloration length and intensity. Gas chromatography/mass spec-trometry （GCMS） analysis of the 6-month old sample yielded some important agarwood compounds such as benzylacetone, anisylacetone, guaiene and palustrol. This demonstrates that the tested fungi have the ability to induce agarwood formation in nurseryA. malaccensis trees.     

Wundfäule in Fichtenwaldungen mit alten Schälschäden

Wound decays in spruce stands following bark stripping . 2083 trees in 91 sample plots on four trial areas (24 ha) were examined for bark stripping and decay. Only 25% of trees showed no injury. Of the injured trees, 73% showed some degree of decay, 10% discoloration. and 17% neither decay nor discoloration. Of the wood destroying fungi isolated Fomes annosus was dominant and appeared to be the most important and widespread of the wound inhabiting fungi in the test area. Besides the Basidiomycetes a considerable number of other fungi was isolated. The most frequent was Cylindrocarpon cylindroides var. tenue.     

Contribution of active defense responses in the limitation of fungal spread in the sapwood of living sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) tree

The participation of active defense responses in the limitation of fungal spread in the sapwood of living sugi tree was determined. Isolates ofGuignardia cryptomeriae were inoculated to living trees, fresh logs, frozen and thawed logs and autoclaved logs, and the spread of wood discoloration and fungal hyphae was assessed. In autoclaved logs and freeze-treated logs, wood discoloration and reaction zone formation were not observed, and fungal hyphae of both of virulent and avirulent isolates grew rapidly in the wood. In fresh logs, wood discoloration and the formation of a pale reaction zone and transition zone were observed. Virulent isolates spread rapidly, but the spread of avirulent isolates was inhibited. In living trees, wood discoloration was observed and reaction zones were formed at lesion margins. These results indicated that constitutive defense mechanisms had no effect on the spread of both of virulent and avirulent isolates, and that active defense responses were important in the limitation of spread of fungal hyphae, hence in the limitation of wood discoloration. Further, it appeared that avirulent, but not virulent, races ofG. cryptomeriae were easily inhibited even by weak host responses. This study was presented at 105th and 106th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society.     

Characterization of host–fungus interactions among wood decay fungi associated with Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss (Meliaceae) in Singapore

Tree pruning creates wounds that are amenable for wood decay fungi colonization. To characterize the dynamic host–fungus interactions at this location in Senegal mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), in vitro and in vivo pathogenicity tests were conducted with wood decay fungi associated with this tropical tree species. Fomitiporella caryophylii, Hymenochaete murina and Phellinus noxius isolates were included in this experiment following their frequent isolation from Senegal mahogany pruning wounds. The evaluated isolates demonstrated unique host interactions in laboratory tests that suggest equally divergent prognoses for living Senegal mahoganies affected by these fungi. Although all evaluated fungal isolates successfully breached naturally induced reaction zones, P. noxius alone caused significant mass loss to incubated wood blocks. In addition, P. noxius caused extensive wood decay after inoculation in living hosts, successfully illustrating Koch's postulates for this host–fungus relationship. The wood decay ability, invasiveness and facultative parasitism demonstrated by P. noxius suggest its dominant role in wood decay columns below pruning wounds on living Senegal mahoganies. These results highlight the importance of characterizing specific host–fungus interactions and their implications for wood decay severity below pruning wounds in living trees.     

Detection of incipient decay in tree stems with sonic tomography after wounding and fungal inoculation

Picus^® acoustic tomography was used to map incipient stages of fungal decay in the sapwood of standing Douglas fir, beech, oak, and sycamore trees 2, 16, and 27 months after wounding and artificial inoculation with brown-, soft-, and white-rot decay fungi. Some wood properties were additionally measured before (velocity of sound) and after (moisture content, weight loss, and density of sound, discoloured and/or decayed wood) tree felling (28 months). With the exception of Trametes versicolor in sycamore, wood decay was not evident from the tomograms in any host-fungus combination. In comparison to measurements after two months, the device recorded a reduction in sound velocity in some host-fungus combinations after 16 and 27 months. In beech, there was a significant reduction in sound velocity after inoculation with Ganoderma applanatum, Kretzschmaria deusta, and Trametes versicolor. Similarly, a reduction in sound velocity was recorded in sycamore inoculated with Kretzschmaria deusta and Trametes versicolor. In all these combinations, losses in wood weight and wood density were also found. Results showed that the detection of incipient fungal decay at the periphery of tree stems needs to be improved such that tomograms of the Picus^® acoustic tomograph are capable of identifying decay progressing from the sapwood inwards.     

Durability of thermally modified Norway spruce and Scots pine in above-ground conditions

Abstract

One of the main objectives of thermal modification is to increase the biological durability of wood. In this study the fungal resistance of Norway spruce and Scots pine, thermally modified at 195°C and 210°C, was studied with a lap-joint field test. Untreated pine and spruce and pine impregnated with tributyl tin oxide (TBTO) and copper, chromium and arsenic (CCA) were selected as reference materials. The evaluations were carried out after 1, 2 and 9 years of exposure. After 1 and 2 years of exposure mainly discoloration was detected. Only the untreated pine was slightly affected by decay fungi. There were significant differences in the decay ratings of untreated and thermally modified wood materials after 9 years in the field. While the untreated wood materials were severely attacked by decay fungi or reached failure rating, only small areas of incipient decay were detected in the thermally modified samples. Thermally modified pine was slightly more decayed than thermally modified spruce. The only wood material without any signs of decay was CCA-treated pine, since some of the TBTO-treated pine samples were also moderately attacked by fungal decay. The results of the lap-joint test had a good correlation with mass losses in a laboratory test with brown-rot fungi.     

Anatomical characterization of decayed wood in standing light red meranti and identification of the fungi isolated from the decayed area

To further our understanding of wood decay in living light red meranti (Shorea smithiana) trees, microscopic characteristics of the cell and cell wall degradations of S. smithiana wood in the presence of the decay fungi, the identity of the causal fungi, and the decay potential and pattern by an isolated fungus were investigated. Cell wall degradations, including cell wall thinning, bore holes formation, rounded pit erosion, and eroded channel opening were clearly observed under light and scanning electron microscopy. In transverse view, many large voids resulting from a coalition of degraded wood tissue appeared in the decayed canker zone. All these observations suggest the well-known simultaneous decay pattern caused by white-rot fungi. By phylogenetic analysis based on the sequences of internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA, a basidiomycete fungus isolated from the decayed wood was identified as Schizophyllum commune. The degradation caused by this fungus on sound S. smithiana wood in an in situ laboratory decay test was classified as the early stage of simultaneous decay, and showed a similar pattern to that observed in the wood samples naturally decayed.     

Molecular identification of decay fungi in the wood of urban trees

Trees are valuable for urban areas, however, are also susceptible to wood rot fungi. For accurate and fast assessment of the severity and evolution of decay in standing trees, a molecular technique was used to identify the causal agents of wood rot. Fruit bodies of wood decay fungi were collected from infected trees in various stands in Germany. Thirty-six species were identified by traditional methods. The DNA of fruit bodies was extracted, ITS-rDNA amplified by PCR, and ITS regions sequenced. Wood samples from infected urban trees were collected, the entire DNA extracted from affected wood parts, and fungal ITS amplified and sequenced. Fungal species were identified by comparing sequence data with the fruit body data. The technique enables an accurate and rapid identification of causal rot fungi in urban trees.     

Fungal colonization of coastal Douglas‐fir following mechanical commercial thinning damage

Commercial‐aged Douglas‐fir trees mechanically damaged during commercial thinning activities were investigated to quantify fungal taxa present 14 years after thinning. A total of 235 wood cores from 18 damaged and 18 non‐damaged control trees were obtained. Fungi were isolated on malt extract agar and molecular methods were used to identify 48 taxa. Damaged Douglas‐fir trees were more than twice as likely to contain wood‐inhabiting fungi as undamaged trees (p = 0.07) and contained more than 2.5 times more fungi (p = 0.006). However, typical Douglas‐fir stem‐decay fungi were not isolated. Fungi present were mostly endophytes and no significant differences were found in frequencies of decay/non‐decay soft‐rot fungi between damaged and control trees (p = 0.67). Likewise, no significant differences were found for the trend in number of fungi isolates over radial depth into the stem between damaged and control trees (p = 0.29). Frequency of fungal isolates was non‐linearly related to depth in the tree bole. Significant differences between damaged and control trees (p = 0.03) was influenced by the data in the outermost 3 mm. With the exception of these data, there were no significant differences between damaged and control trees in the radial trend in fungal frequency (p = 0.37). Results of this study suggest that wounding in commercial‐aged Douglas‐fir may not contribute significantly to occurrence and species composition of wood inhabiting fungi over the period of a short‐rotation final harvest. However, damage mitigation is recommended supported by a related study showing vertical discolouration affecting all wounded stems.     

4种木材腐朽菌对白桦木材降解能力的比较

木材腐朽大多数由侵蚀木材的真菌所造成(李坚,2002;池玉杰,2003).这些菌能分泌多种酶,把木材中的纤维素、半纤维素和木质素分解为简单的碳水化合物作为生活的养料(Kirk et al.,1987;Higuchi,1990).由于不同的木腐菌的生理特性同,所分泌的酶及酶的活性各不相同(刘欣等,2008),因此,不同的木腐菌所分解木材的各种成分及相对速度就各不相同(Buswell,1987).     

Ecology of wood‐inhabiting fungi in northern forests of Iran

Wood‐decay fungi are important in forest ecosystems and play an important role in nutrient and carbon recycling. The scope of this research was to identify wood‐inhabiting and wood‐decay macrofungi and determine their ecology. We sampled standing trees and dead wood of oak and hornbeam in the northern forests of Iran, specifically in Mazandaran and Golestan provinces. We assessed the influence of field slope, elevation, site direction and the height of fungal sporocarp position on the tree. The species of wood‐inhabiting and wood‐decay fungi belonged to 11 families: Polyporaceae; Stereaceae; Ganodermataceae; Physalacriaceae; Agaricaceae; Xylariaceae; Pluteaceae; Coprinaceae; Strophariaceae; Pleurotaceae; and Hydnaceae. The most common fungal species identified belonged to the Polyporaceae and Ganodermataceae and predominantly grew on trees growing on a slope of 20%, at an altitude of 700–900 m, 0–3 m from the ground a southwesterly site direction and the northern sides of both tree species. These results indicated that field slope was the most important factor in determining fungal sporocarp abundance.     

Dry weight loss of wood after the inoculation of Scots pine stumps with Phlebiopsis gigantea

Artificial inoculation of stumps with Phlebiopsis gigantea (preparation‘PgIBL’) against Heterobasidion annosum in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands on former agricultural lands in Poland is being performed throughout the year. The practical efficiency of the biological control appears to be influenced by the moisture content in stumps and roots. In experiment 1, dry weight loss of wood 3 months and 6 months after P. gigantea inoculation in laboratory was investigated in the stumps after salvage cutting (felling of dead and dying trees) and after thinning (routine cutting of trees) and compared with the decay of the artificially inoculated stumps under field conditions. It was found that 6 months after inoculation the dry weight loss of the samples was about 3%, 17% and 22%, respectively. In experiment 2, the decay of wood from horizontal roots collected after thinning, inoculated with P. gigantea in laboratory, was evaluated. Three months after the inoculation, the loss of dry weight wood was about 22–52%, depending on initial moisture of the roots.     

Relationship between severity of trunk decay of Pinus koraiensis and soil properties around roots

The decay rate of standing Korean pine( Pinus koraiensis) in natural forests can be as high as 50% and is likely infl uenced by the soil properties and nutrient and water status of the site. To clarify the relationship between the severity of tree decay and soil properties in order to prevent decay in a natural mixed forest in the Xiaoxing'an Mountains, wood strength of standing trees was nondestructively assessed, and the severity of decay of extracted wood cores was quantified based on differences in mass between two decayed increment cores extracted at breast height and an intact increment core near the decayed ones. Soil samples from the critical root zone(non-rhizosphere) of each tree were analyzed for chemical properties and microbial composition. The abundance of chemical elements(especially total N and K) and the species richness of soil microbes increased as decay severity increased. Fungal number(FN) and actinomycetes number(AN) were related to decay severity( R~2 = 0.504). Bacterial number(BN) was higher than FN or AN, but had a minor effect on tree decay. Path analysis showed BN might indirectly inhibit decay by affecting FN.Decay severity was not significantly correlated with either soil fungal or bacterial diversity. These results suggest that forest managers need to monitor levels of fungi and total N and total K levels to reduce the decay of Korean pine.     

泡桐材变色类型的确定及变色真菌的鉴定

对泡桐材变色类型的研究表明,泡桐材变色存在着真菌变色。同时从新伐的泡桐木材中分离出两种真菌,经鉴定是链格孢菌和一种根霉菌,这两种真菌可引发泡桐木材变色。     

Interactions between Scytalidium species and brown- or white-rot basidiomycetes in birch wood

Summary Growth and subsequent decay by seven basidiomycetes in birch wood blocks was inhibited by three Scytalidium isolates. Scytalidium initially colonized the surface of the blocks and gradually overgrew the basidiomycetes. In individual wood blocks from 11 Scytalidium-basidiomycete paired treatment combinations, the basidiomycete was not inhibited throughout the entire wood block. These wood blocks demonstrated interspecific interactions and antagonism between the different fungi. The white-rot fungi responded to isolates of Scytalidium by occluding xylem cells with masses of hyphae, forming pseudosclerotial plates in the zone of initial interaction. Scytalidium appeared to gain access into portions of wood colonized by the basidiomycetes only after substantial decay had resulted by the wood decay fungus.     

Colonization patterns and topochemical aspects of sap streak caused by Stereum sanguinolentum in Norway spruce

Fresh sapwood blocks of Norway spruce (Picea abies) were exposed to 12- and 60-day attack by Stereum sanguinolentum in pure culture and were examined with respect to structural, topochemical and colour alterations. Final stages of degradation by 5. sanguinolentum were studied on naturally decayed spruce wood after 1 year of fungal growth. The development of discoloration in the main anatomical directions of wood was assessed. Furthermore, microspectrophotometrical studies on the decomposition of cell wall polyphenols were performed. Initial signs of sap streak appeared already 8 days after fungal infection. Within the three-dimensional decay pattern, mycelial aggregations associ-ated with the ray tissue proved to be the major cause of discoloration. UV extinction measurements taken at 280 nm of different parts of cell wall transverse sections revealed a specific pattern of lignin distribution and its derivatives during fungal degradation.     

纵坑切梢小蠹蓝污真菌侵害云南松树组织解剖观察

通过对云南松树进行纵坑切梢小蠹（Tomicus piniperda）蓝污真菌（Leptogramphium yunnanense）接种试验，对云南松受害组织进行了形态解剖观察，验证了蓝污真菌对云南松的致病作用。蓝污真菌发现于受害木质部和韧皮组织中的各类细胞中，在木质部，蓝污区域呈现出以心材为中心的扇形分布。在韧皮组织内，蓝污真菌主要沿着细胞轴向在垂直方向上生长，并可通过孔纹进入到水平方向上的相邻细胞内。本项研究揭示了该蓝污真菌在云南松树干韧皮和木质部组织，细胞内的生长和蔓延规律，进一步表明纵坑切梢小蠹蓝污真菌L.yunnanense是云南松的一种病原真菌。     

白桦木材中总酚含量与抗木材腐朽菌的关系

腐朽是木材最严重的生物破坏,它能引起木材结构损坏,造成经济上的巨大损失.白桦(Betula platyphylla)是极易腐朽的树种(李坚,2002).本文利用5种木材腐朽菌对白桦进行生物降解,根据质量损失率筛选出易腐和抗腐植株,进一步研究易腐和抗腐白桦总酚含量的差异与木材腐朽抗性的关系.为今后在林木遗传改良中筛选适宜的天然抗腐朽植株提供理论基础,同时也为森林培育、木材利用等方面的研究提供相关信息,减少防腐剂的使用,降低防腐剂对环境的污染.     

Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. und Sparassis crispa (Wulf. in Jacq.) ex Fr. als Fäuleerreger in einem Douglasienbestand (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) mit hohem Stammfäuleanteil1

Polyporus (Phaeolus) schweinitzii and Sparassis crispa as frequent decay fungi in Douglas fir. Of fifty, 55 ears old trees in a Pseudotsuga menziesii stand. 90% showed decay of the heart- wood of the butt. The possibility of transmission of the most frequent decay fungi, P. schwei- nitzii and S. crispa, which also are frequent parasites in the roots and butts of pine, from the roots of the Pinus sylvestris trees of the previous crop into the roots of the Douglas fir is discussed. A first identification of the fungi was made possible by storing the stem discs under moist conditions. The mycelia of P. schweinitzii and S. crispa grew out of the decayed wood and possessed a characteristic form and colour.