Effect of shallow groundwater table on crop water requirements and crop yields

Due to the increasing demand for food and fiber by its ever-increasing population, the pressure on fresh water resources of Pakistan is increasing. Optimum utilization of surface and groundwater resources has become extremely important to fill the gap between water demand and supply. At Lahore, Pakistan 18 lysimeters, each 3.05 m × 3.05 m × 6.1 m deep were constructed to investigate the effect of shallow water tables on crop water requirements. The lysimeters were connected to bottles with Marriotte siphons to maintain the water tables at the desired levels and tensiometers were installed to measure soil water potential. The crops studied included wheat, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, berseem and sunflower. The results of these studies showed that the contribution of groundwater in meeting the crop water requirements varied with the water-table depth. With the water table at 0.5 m depth, wheat met its entire water requirement from the groundwater and sunflower absorbed more than 80% of its required water from groundwater. Maize and sorghum were found to be waterlogging sensitive crops whose yields were reduced with higher water table. However, maximum sugarcane yield was obtained with the water table at or below 2.0 m depth. Generally, the water-table depth of 1.5–2.0 m was found to be optimum for all the crops studied. In areas where the water table is shallow, the present system of irrigation supplies and water allowance needs adjustments to avoid over irrigation and in-efficient use of water.     

Characterizing ground water use by safflower using weighing lysimeters

Decades of irrigation on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley without sufficient drainage have created large areas where shallow ground water (<1.5 m) has become a problem for agriculture. Because drainage outflow is restricted as a result of environmental concerns, reducing the amount of irrigation applied is a farm management solution for this situation. One option to reduce the amount of irrigation water is to include shallow ground water use as a source of water for crop production when scheduling irrigation. The objective for this study is to describe soil water fluxes in the presence of saline, shallow ground water under a safflower crop. Two weighing lysimeters, one with and one without shallow saline ground water were used to measure crop evapotranspiration of surface drip irrigated safflower. A saline water table (14 dS/m) was maintained in one of the lysimeters. Ground water use as part of crop evapotranspiration was characterized using hourly measurements of the water level in a ground water supply tank (Mariotte bottle). Ground water contribution of up to 40% of daily crop water use was measured. On a seasonal basis, 25% of the total crop water use originated from the ground water. The largest ground water contribution was shown to occur at the end of the growing season, when roots are fully developed and stored soil water in the root zone was depleted. The applied irrigation on the crop grown in the presence of a water table was 46% less than irrigation applied to the crop without a water table. The reduction of irrigation was obtained by using the same irrigation schedule as on the lysimeter without ground water, but through smaller applied depths per irrigation event.     

Effects of soil type on soybean crop water use in weighing lysimeters

Summary Different soils are known to affect the amount and distribution of both available water and roots. Optimising irrigation water use, especially when shallow water-tables are present requires accurate knowledge of the root zone dynamics. This study was conducted to determine the effect of two soil types on root growth, soil water extraction patterns, and contributions of a water-table to crop evaporation (E). Two weighing lysimeters (L1 and L2) with undisturbed blocks of soil were used. The soil in L1 had higher hydraulic conductivity and lower bulk density than that in L2. Well watered conditions were maintained by irrigation for the first 110 days from sowing (DFS). Root length density (RLD) was calculated from observations made in clear acrylic tubes installed into the sides of the lysimeters. Volumetric soil water contents were measured with a neutron probe. A water-table (EC = 0.01 S m^-1) was established 1 m below the soil surface 18 DFS. RLD values were greater in L1 than L2 at any depth. In L1, maximum RLD values (3 × 10⁴ m m^-3) were measured immediately above the water-table at physiological maturity (133 DFS). In L2, maximum RLD values (1.5 × 10⁴ m m^-3) were measured at 0.42 m on 120 DFS and few roots were present above the water-table. From 71 to 74 DFS, 55 and 64% of E was extracted from above 0.2 m for L1 and L2, respectively. In L2, extraction was essentially limited to the upper 0.4 m, while L1 extraction was to 0.8 m depth. Around 100 DFS the water-table contributed 29% (L1) and 7% (L2) of the water evaporated. This proportion increased rapidly as the upper soil layers dried following the last substantial irrigation 106 DFS. Over the whole season the water-table contributed 24% in L1 and 6.5% in L2 of total E.     

Managing subsurface drip irrigation in the presence of shallow ground water

A 3-year project compared the operation of a subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) and a furrow irrigation system in the presence of shallow saline ground water. We evaluated five types of drip irrigation tubing installed at a depth of 0.4 m with lateral spacings of 1.6 and 2 m on 2.4 ha plots of both cotton and tomato. Approximately 40% of the cotton water requirement and 10% of the tomato water requirement were obtained from shallow (<2 m) saline (5 dS/m) ground water. Yields of the drip-irrigated cotton improved during the 3-year study, while that of the furrow-irrigated cotton remained constant. Tomato yields were greater under drip than under furrow in both the years in which tomatoes were grown. Salt accumulation in the soil profile was managed through rainfall and pre-plant irrigation. Both drip tape and hard hose drip tubing are suitable for use in our subsurface drip system. Maximum shallow ground water use for cotton was obtained when the crop was irrigated only after a leaf water potential (LWP) of −1.4 MPa was reached. Drip irrigation was controlled automatically with a maximum application frequency of twice daily. Furrow irrigation was controlled by the calendar.     

Modelling the effect of groundwater depth on yield-increasing interventions in rainfed lowland rice in Central Java,Indonesia

Because of drought and nutrient stress, the yields of rainfed lowland rice in Central Java, Indonesia, are generally low and unstable. Variation in groundwater depth can contribute to experimental variability in results of yield-increasing interventions. To test this hypothesis, we used the crop growth simulation model ORYZA2000 to explore the impacts of groundwater depth on the effect of sowing date, tillage, fertiliser-N application and supplementary irrigation on the yield of lowland rice at Jakenan, Central Java, Indonesia. ORYZA2000 was first parameterized and evaluated using data from eight seasons of field experiments between 1995 and 2000. The model adequately simulated the soil water balance, crop growth and grain yield. With shallow to medium groundwater depth (less than 0.5 m deep), rainfed rice yields are close to potential yields with timely sowing in the wet season. With groundwater tables fluctuating mostly between 0.5 and 1.5 m, rainfed yields are 0.5–1 Mg ha⁻¹ lower than potential yields with timely sowing. The decrease in yield with late sowing sets in earlier and proceeds faster with deeper groundwater depths. Deep tillage and supplementary irrigation increase yield more with deep groundwater tables than with shallow groundwater tables, but N fertilisation increases yield more with shallow than with deep groundwater tables. Groundwater depth should be taken into account in the selection of yield-increasing interventions.     

黄淮海平原主要土壤水力参数的研究

通过对黄淮海平原 3种主要土壤饱和导水率的研究 ,结果表明 :3种土壤的饱和导水率在 5 .95×1 0 - 6 ～ 1 .0 8× 1 0 - 2 cm/ s之间变化 ,并随着土壤剖面深度的增加呈现出上土层高、中间土层低、底土层又升高的趋势 ;扰动土与原状土的饱和导水率差异较大 ,达到极显著水平 ;土壤容重、孔隙度、有机质含量、粘粒含量和全盐含量等均对土壤饱和导水率有一定的影响。原状土的饱和导水率能反映田间水分运动以及孔隙状况 ,对研究土壤水量平衡和水土保持有重要的意义。扰动土的饱和导水率在农业工程上有参考价值。     

Soil water variability under subsurface drip and furrow irrigation

Non-uniformities in soil hydraulic properties and infiltration rates are considered to be major reasons for the inefficiencies of some surface irrigation systems. These non-uniformities may cause non-uniformities in soil water contents and could potentially affect plant growth. To investigate whether the non-uniformities in soil water contents can be overcome by well-managed irrigation systems, fields with clay loam soils and planted to cotton were irrigated with a continuous-flow, a surge flow, and a subsurface drip system. Measurements of water contents in each field were taken throughout the growing season at several depths. The water contents measured within the top 0–0.9 m in the three irrigations systems were evaluated in terms of their spatial and temporal variabilities. The analyses indicated that on this soil, use of the surge flow system did not lead to increased spatial uniformities of soil water contents compared with the continuous-flow system. Use of the subsurface drip system resulted in very non-uniform soil water contents above the depth of the emitters. Variability in water contents below the emitter depth was comparable to the surface irrigation systems. Received: 26 March 1996     

Modeling irrigated cotton with shallow groundwater in the Aral Sea Basin of Uzbekistan: I. Water dynamics

In Khorezm, a region located in the Aral Sea basin of Uzbekistan, water use for irrigation of predominantly cotton is high whereas water use efficiency is low. To quantify the seasonal water and salt balance, water application, crop growth, soil water, and groundwater dynamics were studied on a sandy, sandy loam and loamy cotton field in the years 2003 and 2005. To simulate and quantify improved management strategies and update irrigation standards, the soil water model Hydrus-1D was applied. Results showed that shallow groundwater contributed a substantial share (up to 399 mm) to actual evapotranspiration of cotton (estimated at 488–727 mm), which alleviated water stress in response to suboptimal quantities of water applied for irrigation, but enhanced concurrently secondary soil salinization. Thus, pre-season salt leaching becomes a necessity. Nevertheless, as long as farmers face high uncertainty in irrigation water supply, maintaining shallow groundwater tables can be considered as a safety-net against unreliable water delivery. Simulations showed that in 2003 around 200 mm would have been sufficient during pre-season leaching, whereas up to 300 mm of water was applied in reality amounting to an overuse of almost 33%. Using some of this water during the irrigation season would have alleviated season crop-water stress such as in June 2003. Management strategy analyses revealed that crop water uptake would only marginally benefit from a permanent crop residue layer, often recommended as part of conservation agriculture. Such a mulch layer, however, would substantially reduce soil evaporation, capillary rise of groundwater, and consequently secondary soil salinization. The simulations furthermore demonstrated that not relying on the contribution of shallow groundwater to satisfy crop water demand is possible by implementing timely and soil-specific irrigation scheduling. Water use would then not be higher than the current Uzbek irrigation standards. It is argued that if furrow irrigation is to be continued, pure sandy soils, which constitute <5% of the agricultural soils in Khorezm, are best to be taken out of annual cotton production.     

Effect of water-saving irrigation on rice yield and water use in typical lowland conditions in Asia

With decreasing water availability for agriculture and increasing demand for rice, water use in rice production systems has to be reduced and water productivity increased. Alternately submerged–nonsubmerged (ASNS) systems save water compared with continuous submergence (CS). However, the reported effect on yield varies widely and detailed characterizations of the hydrological conditions of ASNS experiments are often lacking so that generalizations are difficult to make. We compared the effects of ASNS and CS on crop performance and water use, at different levels of N input, in field experiments in China and the Philippines, while recording in detail the hydrological dynamics during the experiment. The experiments were conducted in irrigated lowlands and followed ASNS practices as recommended to farmers in China. The sites had silty clay loam soils, shallow groundwater tables and percolation rates of 1–4.5 mm per day.Grain yields were 4.1–5.0 t ha⁻¹ with 0 kg N ha⁻¹ and 6.8–9.2 t ha⁻¹ with 180 kg N ha⁻¹. Biomass and yield did not significantly differ between ASNS and CS, but water productivity was significantly higher under ASNS than under CS in two out of three experiments. There was no significant water×N interaction on yield, biomass, and water productivity. Combined rainfall plus irrigation water inputs were 600–960 mm under CS, and 6–14% lower under ASNS. Irrigation water input was 15–18% lower under ASNS than under CS, but only significantly so in one experiment. Under ASNS, the soils had no ponded water for 40–60% of the total time of crop growth. During the nonsubmerged periods, ponded water depths or shallow groundwater tables never went deeper than −35 cm and remained most of the time within the rooted depth of the soil. Soil water potentials did not drop below −10 kPa. We argue that our results are typical for poorly-drained irrigated lowlands in Asia, and that ASNS can reduce water use up to 15% without affecting yield when the shallow groundwater stays within about 0–30 cm. A hydrological characterization and mapping of Asia’s rice area is needed to assess the extent and magnitude of potential water savings.     

Patterns of water withdrawal beneath an irrigated peach orchard on a red-brown earth

Summary Water withdrawal from the soil beneath an irrigated peach orchard is described over depth and time after irrigation for a red-brown earth where the hydraulic properties vary with depth. Relationships between water uptake by roots, root concentration and soil-water suction were explored over protracted drying cycles. In the early stages of drying water uptake by roots was well correlated with root concentration over the profile but, over time, water uptake was redistributed over the root system. Theoretical analysis suggests that poor utilization of water from depth on this soil was associated mainly with low root concentrations and low root (radial) conductance. Practical considerations for improved water management in the root zone of peach orchards on shallow soils are discussed.     

Shallow groundwater contribution to pistachio water use

Pistachio can be grown in the central desert of Islamic Republic (I.R.) of Iran with adverse conditions such as shallow saline groundwater tables. The contribution of water from shallow, saline groundwater to crop water use may be important in such conditions. The objectives of this study were to determine the contributions from shallow, saline groundwater to water use of pistachio seedlings, and how this contribution was affected by groundwater depth, salinitiy, and irrigation conditions. The results indicated that an increase in groundwater depth resulted in significant increase in root depth and significant decrease in seasonal evapotranspiration (ET), transpiration, and groundwater contribution to the plant water use. Non-saline shallow (30–120 cm depth) groundwater under irrigated and non-irrigated conditions contributed 72.4–89.7% and 90.7–100.0% of plant water use, respectively. However, these contributions were 57.2–74.8% and 79.3–100.0% for irrigated and non-irrigated conditions, respectively for saline shallow (30–120 cm depth) groundwater. The effect of groundwater depths (D, cm) on groundwater contributions (q, %) was found to be influenced by the salinity levels of the groundwater (EC, dS m⁻¹). The linear multiple regression equations were q = 97.5 − 1.24(EC) − 0.194(D) and q = 105.9 − 0.48(EC) − 0.154(D) for irrigated and non-irrigated conditions, respectively. The maximum reductions in relative plant dry weight of 80.3% and 44.8% were occurred under non-irrigated condition and saline groundwater depth of 30 cm and non-saline water depth of 60 cm, respectively. Root depth analysis indicated that vertical root growth caused the root to reach a moist layer near the groundwater. A very close to 1:1 relationship between relative reduction in top dry weight (1 − y/y_m) and relative reduction in transpiration (1 − T/T_m) was obtained.     

Soil-dependent wetting from trickle emitters: implications for system design and management

For trickle irrigation systems to deliver improved water- and nutrient-use efficiency, distance between emitters and emitter flow rates must be matched to the soil's wetting characteristics and the amount and timing of water to be supplied to the crop. Broad soil texture ranges (e.g. sand, loam, clay) are usually the only information related to soil wetting used in trickle system designs. In this study, dimensions of wetted soil were calculated from hydraulic properties of 29 soils covering a wide range of textures and soil hydraulic properties to assess the impact of soil texture and/or type on soil wetting patterns. The soils came from two groups that differed in the extent to which hydraulic properties depended on soil texture. Vertical and radial distances to the wetting front from both surface and buried emitters were calculated for conditions commonly associated with daily irrigation applications in a widely spaced row crop (sugarcane) and horticultural crops. In the first group of soils, which had least expression of field structure, the wetted volume became more spherical (i.e. the wetted radius increased relative to the depth of wetting below the emitter) with increasing clay content, as is commonly accepted. However, in the second group of soils in which field structure was preserved, there was no such relationship between wetted dimensions and texture. For example, five soils with the same texture had as great a variation in wetting pattern, as did all 11 soils in the first group, indicating the considerable impact of field structure on wetting patterns. The implications of the results for system design and management were illustrated by comparing current recommendations for trickle irrigation systems in coastal northeastern Australia with the calculated wetted dimensions. The results suggest that (1) emitter spacings recommended for sugarcane are generally too large to allow complete wetting between emitters, and (2) the depth of wetting may be greater than the active root zone for both sugarcane and small crops in many soils, resulting in losses of water and chemicals below the root zone. We conclude that texture is an unreliable predictor of wetting and there is no basis for adopting different dripper spacing in soils of different textures in the absence of site-specific information on soil wetting. Such information is crucial for the design of efficient trickle irrigation systems.Communicated by J. Annandale     

Simulation of soil water dynamics under subsurface drip irrigation from line sources

A mathematical model which describes water flow under subsurface drip lines taking into account root water uptake, evaporation of soil water from the soil surface and hysteresis in the soil water characteristic curve θ(H) is presented. The model performance in simulating soil water dynamics was evaluated by comparing the predicted soil water content values with both those of Hydrus 2D model and those of an analytical solution for a buried single strip source. Soil water distribution patterns for three soils (loamy sand, silt, silty clay loam) and two discharge rates (2 and 4 l m⁻¹ h⁻¹) at four different times are presented. The numerical results showed that the soil wetting pattern mainly depends on soil hydraulic properties; that at a time equal to irrigation duration decreasing the discharge rate of the line sources but maintaining the applied irrigation depth, the vertical and horizontal components of the wetting front were increased; that at a time equal to the total simulation time the discharge rate has no effect on the actual transpiration and actual soil evaporation and a small effect on deep percolation. Also the numerical results showed that when the soil evaporation is neglected the soil water is more easily taken up by the plant roots.     

Opening floodgates in coastal floodplain drains: effects on tidal forcing and lateral transport of solutes in adjacent groundwater

The effects of opening tidal barriers (floodgates) upon water table levels and lateral transport of solutes adjacent drains was investigated at two sites on a coastal floodplain. The sites had contrasting geomorphology, soil texture and sediment hydraulic properties. The site with lower hydraulic conductivity (0.3–0.9 m day⁻¹) soils (Romiaka) also had a higher elevation and hydraulic gradients towards the drain. While floodgate opening at Romiaka enhanced the amplitude of pre-existing tidal interaction with adjacent shallow groundwater, altered hydraulic gradients and caused some salt seepage, lateral solute movement from the drain was highly attenuated (<10 m). The site with very high hydraulic conductivity soils (Shark Creek; >125 m day⁻¹) had a lower elevation and seasonally fluctuating hydraulic gradients. The introduction of a tidal pressure signal into the drain by opening the floodgate at Shark Creek caused tidal forcing of groundwater over 300 m from the drain. Floodgate opening at this site also caused changes in groundwater hydraulic gradients, leading to incursion of saline drain water into shallow groundwater over 80 m from the drain. Lateral movement of solutes was relatively rapid, due to macropore flow in oxidised acid sulfate soil horizons, and caused substantial changes to shallow groundwater chemical composition. Conversely, when groundwater hydraulic gradients were towards the drain at this site there was substantial lateral outflow of acid groundwater into drains. This study highlights the importance of assessing the hydraulic properties of soils next to drains on coastal floodplains prior to opening floodgates, particularly in acid sulfate soil backswamps, in order to prevent unintended saline intrusion into shallow groundwater.     

In situ water transmission characteristics of a tropical soil under rice-based cropping systems

In soils under rice-based cropping systems in Asia water movement and distribution in the root zone of rice and dryland crops are important for efficient water management. Saturated hydraulic conductivities in the wetland soil profile were evaluated from measurements of hydraulic gradients and percolation rates in the field. The subsoil layer (15–60 cm) restricted percolation rate to a greater degree than the puddled top soil.Unsaturated hydraulic conductivities and soil water diffusivities in the soil profile under dryland conditions were obtained from simultaneous measurements of soil water content using the neutron moderation technique and the soil matric potential by tensiometers over time and soil depth. Soil matric potential versus hydraulic conductivity and soil water content versus soil water diffusivity relations of various soil depths were established. At equivalent soil matric potentials, the hydraulic conductivity of surface soil was greater than that of the subsoil layers. Soil water diffusivity at different depths responded similarly. The study describes a simple in situ technique to measure percolation rates in wetland rice fields and evaluation of water transmission properties of field soil profiles.     

Leaching irrigated saline sandy to sandy loam apedal soils with water of a constant salinity

With the optimization of irrigation, more salts accumulate in the root zone of soils, due to less over-irrigation. On-farm irrigation management requires a certain amount of leaching to ensure sustainability. The objective is to quantify the pore volume of water required to efficiently leach excess salts from two saline soils, widely irrigated in central South Africa. A total of 30 lysimeters, 15 per soil type arranged in two parallel rows under a moveable rain shelter, were used. Five different salinity profiles per soil type, replicated three times, were leached using irrigation water with a 75 mS m⁻¹ electrical conductivity. During irrigation the residual more saline pore water was displaced from the top downward through the root zone. The mean salinity of the soil profiles approached an equilibrium concentration equal to that of the irrigation water after 0.9 pore volume of soil was displaced by drainage water. For the sandy soil 0.2 and for the sandy loam soil 0.3 pore volumes were required to efficiently remove 70% of the excess salts. The remainder of the water was needed to leach the remaining 20% of the excess salts. This, however, was not efficient in terms of the amount of water required.     

In situ use of groundwater by alfalfa

Disposal of saline drainage water is a significant problem for irrigated agriculture. One proposal is to recycle drainage water to irrigate salt tolerant crops until the volume has been reduced sufficiently to enable final disposal by evaporation. Part of this concept requires in situ crop water reuse from shallow groundwater; and data is needed to quantify the potential use of groundwater by alternative crops. A column lysimeter study was initiated to determine the potential crop water use from shallow groundwater by alfalfa as a function of groundwater quality and depth to groundwater. The results demonstrated that up to 50% of the crop water use could be met from shallow groundwater (<1.2 m) with an electrical conductivity less than 4 dS/m, and that the potential crop water use from deeper groundwater (2 m) increased over the years. The columns with high salinity (>4 dS/m) in the shallow groundwater experienced increased salinity in the soil profile with time, which resulted in reduced crop water use from shallow groundwater. Yields decreased with time as the groundwater salinity increased and periodic leaching will be required for in situ use to be a sustainable practice. Statistical analysis of crop yield demonstrated that there was significant use of groundwater with an EC of 6 dS/m for a few years.     

Soil water storage and surface runoff as influenced by irrigation method in arid soils with surface crust

The effects of irrigation methods, application rates and initial moisture content on soil water storage and surface runoff were studied in soils liable to surface crust formation during 1995–1996 at the University of Jordan Research Station near Al-Muwaqqar village. Four irrigation methods were tested (sprinkler, furrow, basin and trickle) and four application rates (6.2, 14.4, 24.4 and 28.4 mm/h). Two runs were performed (soil initially dry and soil initially wet). Basin irrigation provided the highest application efficiency followed by trickle, sprinkler and furrow irrigation methods. Entrapping water by the basin borders increased soil water storage by allowing more water to infiltrate through the surface crust. Decreasing the application rate from 28.4 to 6.2 mm/h increased soil water storage significantly in all 150 mm layers to a depth of 600 mm. If the soil was already wet, soil moisture storage decreased owing to siltation during the prewetting and formation of a surface crust and low soil water storage capacity. A sedimentary crust formed at the bottom of the furrows in the furrow irrigation treatment, which reduced soil water storage and increased surface runoff significantly owing to the reduction in infiltration. Increasing the application rate from 6.2 to 28.4 mm/h in the furrow surface irrigation treatment increased the runoff discharge 10-fold. Even with the lowest application rate the runoff coefficient under sprinkler irrigation was 20.3% indicating high susceptibility of Al-Muwaqqar soils to surface crust formation.     

Soil water content and water balance in rainfed fields in Northeast Thailand

Northeast Thailand has a semi-humid tropical climate which is characterized by dry and rainy seasons. In order to stabilize crop production, it may be necessary to develop new water resources, such as soil moisture and groundwater, instead of rainfed resources. This is because rainfed agriculture has already been unsuccessfully tried in many areas of this region. In this study, we investigate the soil water content in rainfed fields in Khon Kaen in Northeast Thailand, where rice and sugarcane were planted, over a 1-year period that contained both dry and rainy seasons, and estimate the actual evapotranspiration (ET_a) using micrometeorological data. In addition, we assess the water balance from the results of the soil water content investigation and the actual evapotranspiration. Although the soil water content at depths above 0.6 m in both the lower and the sloping fields gradually decreased during the dry season, the soil water content at a depth of 1.0 m was under almost constant wet conditions. Two-dimensional profiles of the soil water content demonstrated that at the end of the dry season, the soil layers below a depth of 0.4 m showed a soil water content of more than 0.10-0.15 m³ m⁻³, thus suggesting that water was supplied to the sugarcane from those layers. The range in ET_a rates was almost the same as that in the previous study. The average ET_a rates were 3.7 mm d⁻¹ for the lower field and 4.2 mm d⁻¹ for the sloping field. In the dry season, an upward water flow of 373 mm (equivalent to a flux of 1.9 mm d⁻¹) was estimated from outside the profile. The source of this upward water flow was the sandy clay (SC) layer below a depth of 1 m. It was this soil water supply from the SC layer that allowed the sugarcane to grow without irrigation.     

Irrigation with saline water in the reclaimed marsh soils of south-west Spain: impact on soil properties and cotton and sugar beet crops

The drained and irrigated marshes in south-west Spain are formed on soils of alluvial origin from the ancient Guadalquivir river estuary. The most important characteristics of these soils are the high clay content (about 70%), high salinity, and a shallow, extremely saline, water table. The reclaimed area near Lebrija, called Sector B-XII (about 15,000 ha), has been under cultivation since 1978. Some years, however, water supply for irrigation is limited due to drought periods. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of irrigation with high and moderately saline waters on soil properties and growth and yield of cotton and sugar beet crops. The experiments were carried out during 1997 and 1998 in a farm plot of 12.5 ha (250 m×500 m) in which a drainage system had been installed, consisting of cylindrical ceramic sections (0.3 m long) forming pipes 250 m long, buried at a depth of 1 m and spaced at intervals of 10 m. These drains discharge into a collecting channel perpendicular to the drains. Two subplots of 0.5 ha (20 m×250 m) each were selected. In 1997 cotton was growing in both subplots, and irrigation was applied by furrows. One subplot (A) was irrigated with fresh water (0.9 dS m⁻¹) during the whole season, while in the other subplot (B) one of the irrigations (at flowering stage) was with water of high salinity (22.7 dS m⁻¹). During 1998 both subplots were cropped with sugar beet. Subplot A was irrigated with fresh water (1.7 dS m⁻¹) during the whole season, while in subplot B two of the irrigations were with moderately saline water (5.9–7.0 dS m⁻¹). Several measurement sites were established in each subplot. Water content profile, tensiometric profile, water table level, drainage water flow, soil salinity, and crop development and yield were monitored. The results showed that after the irrigation with high saline water (subplot B) in 1997 (cotton), the soil salinity increased. This increase was more noticeable in the top layer (0–0.3 m depth). In contrast, for the same dates, the soil of subplot A showed no changes. After five irrigations with fresh water, the salinity of the soil in the subplot B reached values similar to those before the application of saline water. In 1998 (sugar beet) the application of moderately saline water in subplot B also increased soil salinity, but this increase was lower than in 1997. The irrigation with high saline water affected crop development. Cotton growth was reduced in comparison with that in the subplot irrigated only with fresh water. Despite this negative effect on crop development, the crop yield was the same as in the subplot A. Sugar beet development did not show differences between subplots, but yield was higher in subplot B than in subplot A.