Integration of Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Forest and Economic Development of Local Communities

Abstract

Quantification of economic contribution of all forest products is a primary requirement for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities. A methodology for quantification of the contribution of all non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is suggested, and applied to a minuscule sample of seven villages in India for illustrative purposes. A comparative analysis of such contributions of NTFPs in two major types of forest cover, Teak (Tectona grandis) and Sal (Shorea robusta) has been made. The role of NTFPs has been evaluated in terms of three measures of economic development: (i) share in household income, (ii) income distribution, and (iii) mitigation of uncertainties of agricultural income stream due to random fluctuations in weather conditions. A basic strategy for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities, based on socio-economic conditions of the community and silvicultural requirements of the forest resources, is suggested.     

The ecology and management of the Miombo woodlands for sustainable livelihoods in southern Africa: the case for non-timber forest products

There is new and increasing emphasis on the contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to improving the livelihoods of rural communities and therefore the need for sustainable management of forest ecosystems of the Miombo woodlands to ensure the continued availability of these NTFPs. This paper examines and reviews some of the work that has been done in the Miombo ecoregion on the ecology, utilisation and management of the Miombo woodlands. The review points to the richness of the Miombo regions' plant species, with an estimated 8 500 species of higher plants, of which over 54% are endemic. The review also highlights the response of the Miombo ecosystem to fire and other anthropogenic processes and the lack of wide-scale adoption or implementation of the major research findings. The review shows that there is a wide range of NTFPs that significantly contribute to the total household income in forest areas and to the national economies through provision of opportunities for small-scale trade especially in the rural areas. However, there is a concern that commercialisation usually results in overexploitation of the resource by the outsiders who become the major players. It is suggested from the review that the lack of capacity by national institutions to manage Miombo woodland resources could be addressed by using participatory approaches to natural resource management. It is also proposed that for sustainable use and management of NTFPs in the Miombo region, research should focus on issues that specifically address NTFPs. In order to facilitate commercialisation and benefit the economically weak, policies that incorporate postharvesting technical assistance and access to information on markets, technology and microcredit should be developed and promoted.     

NTFPs and Their Commercialization Issues from the Perspective of Rural Livelihood and the State of Forest Resources: A Study of the Ranibundh Forest Range in West Bengal,India

Forests provide a source of livelihood to all classes of rural people, especially in tribal dominated areas. With the advent of joint forest management concepts and commercial earning prospects from non-timber forest products (NTFPs), it was expected that forests would be best preserved by the villagers who depend on them for a substantial part of their livelihoods. However, in the case of the Ranibundh block in the Bankura district, it was observed that the predominance of private agencies in marketing channels of NTFPs, together with risk of eviction, loss of customary right to access forest resources, low employment prospects, and lack of training about proper management of NTFPs have led to the failure in motivating the forest dwellers to prevent degradation of forest resources. It is suggested that government agencies, producer institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other strong institutional entities can promote forest preservation when complemented by the granting of forest rights to rural people, the extension of training facilities, and alternative employment prospects.     

Research in Non-Timber Forest Products

Abstract

Summary Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have emerged as a complex set of issues reflecting changes in society and how natural resources are regarded. These issues range from the sustainability of forest management practices to the relationship of diverse cultures and communities to public lands and their resources. Research and its relationship to this set of issues is a relatively unknown aspect of NTFPs.

This paper reports on early NTFP research by scientists in the USDA Forest Service's Pacific Northwest Research Station. It characterizes efforts over approximately five years and identifies their key elements. It also discusses the role research has and could play in addressing the problems and questions associated with NTFPs and sustainable forestry .     

The power of knowledge: information transfer and açaí intensification in the peri-urban interface of Belém,Brazil

Academic scholarship and development paradigms promote non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as potential options to link environmental conservation with sustainable economic development objectives for rural communities worldwide. The açaí berry (Euterpe oleracea) is a native palm found in forest ecosystems of northern Brazil and historically extracted and sold in regional markets. Recent increases in national and international açaí demand have resulted in dramatic price increases. Management decisions on a local producer level reflect trends not typically associated with traditional NTFPs as future production and income expectations increase. This case study draws on research conducted in peri-urban communities in close proximity to Belém, Brazil. The work draws links between recent açaí intensification trends in upland areas and information pathways that are contributing to this pattern. This paper argues that external information sources regarding land use choices are prioritized over local knowledge and market indicators which previously have been described as drivers for intensification processes of NTFPs. This qualitative analysis highlights the power structures that influence information sharing and in turn, land use choices on a community level. The results of this analysis are important for NTFP intervention initiatives focused on risk management for smallholders. Finally, this study is a useful complement for ecological studies currently being conducted on intensification processes of non-timber forest products.     

Understanding the Contribution of Non-timber Forest Products to the Livelihoods of Forest Dwellers in the Northern Zagros in Iran

One of the features of the forest dwellers in the Zagros region of Iran is their dependence on non-timber forest products (NTFPs). These products can play an important role in the livelihood of households located in the forest. The present study aims to determine the most important sources of forest dwellers’ incomes in the northern Zagros in terms of three income groups (lower, middle, and higher), to assess how changes in income are related to types of NTFPs harvested, and to investigate the most significant socio-economic factors determining absolute and relative household revenue from NTFPs. Income in higher- and middle-income groups come predominantly from border trade between Iran and Iraq, comprising 50 and 44 % of relative income, respectively. The main source of income for the lower-income group is remittance and government interest (such as cash subsidies), comprising 31 % of total household annual income. The relative income from NTFPs depends on the income group, varying between 10 and 21 %. Relative income from NTFPs (such as oak acorns, firewood, Gazoo, and Mazooj) for lower-income households is significantly higher than in middle- and higher-income households (p < 0.05). Feed used for grazing livestock in the forest is the most important type of NTFPs in this area, and its benefit in the higher-income group is significantly higher than that for groups with middle and lower income. A similar result is achieved for tree fodder. Relative income from the NTFPs is positively related to number of household members and negatively related to the average education of adult members of the household, the relative income from border trade, and the relative income from agriculture. Our results support our hypothesis that if there is access to other sources of income for forest dwellers, their dependence on forests would be reduced.     

Use of forest resources,traditional forest-related knowledge and livelihood of forest dependent communities: Cases in South Korea

The patterns of forest resource use in South Korea have been overviewed along with the forest resource availability to the forest users and in relation to the socio-economic conditions of local people. In South Korea, forest income arises more from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and forest ecosystems services than from timber. The relationship between availability of forest resources and income of residents in mountainous villages was addressed with statistical analysis of results of household surveys conducted in Gangwon-do Province. The result indicates that the mere existence of forest resources and related cultural heritages is not enough for local communities to obtain income from forest land. Proper arrangements for local communities in accessing the forest resources and knowledge of making use of the resources is required to make the relationship constructive for people's livelihood. Joint management agreement between forest communities and the forest owner serves both parties for sustainable forest management in Korea as seen in the case of maple sap collection within Seoul National University Forests. The traditional knowledge held by local residents is of value for income generation for forest dependent communities and is considered as an integral part of sustainable forest management as seen in the case of native honey bee keeping near protected forest areas managed by the national forest authority. However, traditional cultural values may be positive or negative for ecologically sound forest management as seen in the pest management policy of the Korean government formulated based on cultural value rather than considerations of ecosystem health.     

Contribution of NTFPs to cash income of the War Khasi community of southern Meghalaya, North-East India

Ever since their emergence on this planet,human beings have depended on forest resources for their requirements,ranging from food,fuel to shelter.Sustainable extraction of forest resources has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers,which does not diminish the resource base.Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets,non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can only act as a safetynet and a supplementary income source.In southern Meghalaya of India,NTFPs and medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become an important source of cash and subsistence income for poor people living in or near forests.People in this region have traditionally been collecting different forest products from private forests as well as community conserved forests.The study reveals that NTFPs contribute significantly towards the annual cash income of the local population.The contribution of NTFPs to their income was highest in the case of poor families (9.89%),followed by middle income families (3.34%) and the least for the higher income families (1.34%).Our household survey revealed that 100% of the population is directly or indirectly dependent on NTFPs.Household response indicates diversity in both the types and uses of products collected.     

Analysis of rural people’s attitude towards the management of tribal forests in South Africa

The management of forests for multiple purposes coupled with a varying socioeconomic profile of forest users can result in attitudinal differences towards forest management. This study examines the attitudes of rural people in South Africa towards the management of tribal forests. Attitude towards forest management was analysed with respect to five forest management objectives: 1, forest management for rural livelihood resilience to climate change; 2, forest management for reduction and management of forest fire risk; 3, forest management for sustainable forest-based livelihood; 4, forest management for household socioeconomic wellbeing; and 5, forest management for community-based climate change adaptation initiative. A household questionnaire survey was used to elicit information from 155 rural households using the proportionate random sampling procedure. Chi-square test was used to analyse data from the household survey. Factorial analysis was used to analyse variance in attitude towards forest management. The results showed that rural people generally have positive attitudes toward the management of tribal forests. Factor analysis isolated 2 major factors that explained 61% variance in attitude. Based on the findings we conclude that centralising forest management around the four management objectives (1, 3, 4 & 5) are likely to promote inclusive forest-based development in the study communities.     

Population distribution and threats to sustainable management of selected non-timber forest products in tropical lowland rainforests of south western Nigeria

Uncontrolled harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) poses a serious risk of extermination to several of these species in Nigeria. Yet, there is a paucity of information on the distribution, population status and sustainable management of NTFPs in most of the tropical lowland rainforests. We, therefore, assessed the population, distribution and threats to sustainable management of NTFPs within the tropical lowland rainforests of Omo and Shasha Forest Reserves, south western Nigeria. Data were obtained through inventory surveys on five top priority species including: bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill), African walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum (Mull. Arg.) Hutch. & Dalziel syn. Plukenetia conophora), chew-stick (Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock), fever bark (Annickia chlorantha Setten & P.J.Maas syn. Enantia chloranta) and bush pepper (Piper guineense Schumach. & Thonn.). Purposive and stratified random sampling techniques were used for the inventory. Each forest reserve was stratified into three, viz: less disturbed natural forest (for areas that have been rested for at least ten years), recently disturbed natural forest (for areas that have suffered one form of human perturba- tion or the other in the last five years), and plantation forest (for areas carrying forest plantation). Data were collected from eighteen 10m×500m belt transects located in the above strata. The species were gener- ally fewer in both plantation and recently disturbed natural forest than the less disturbed natural forest, suggesting that forest disturbances (habitat modification) for other uses may have an effect on the occurrence and densities of the NTFPs. Exceptions to this trend were found for P. guineense and T. conophorum, which were fairly common in both planta-tion and recently disturbed natural forest. Among three tree NTFP species (i.e. I. gabonensis, M. acuminata and A. chlorantha), only I. gabonensis showed a significant difference in overall DBH size classes for both reserves (t=-2.404; df =21; p=0.026). Three tree NTFP species in both reserves further showed differences from the regular patterns of distribution of trees. The fairly regular reverse J-shaped size class distribution observed for M. acuminata in the study sites, however, suggests a recuperating population. In general, destructive harvesting of species, logging operations, low population size, narrow distribution ranges and habitat degradation are the major threats to the population of NTFPs in the study area. The implications of our findings for sustainable management of NTFPs in the study area are discussed and recommendations are made for a feasible approach towards enhancing the status of the species.     

The role of non-timber forest products during agroecosystem shift in Xishuangbanna,southwestern China

There are few observations on the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in shifting from subsistence to commercial plantation-dominated systems with long-term monitoring, despite interests in NTFPs for sustainable development and livelihood dependence. During 1998–2004, we conducted an annual survey of households in the two villages, Baka and Daka, which represent different stages in the shift from a subsistence agroecosystem to a rubber plantation-dominated system in Xishuangbanna, southwestern China. Significant negative correlations were observed between gross income and dependence on NTFPs-generated income in both Baka and Daka villages (P = 0.029 in Baka and P = 0.028 in Daka), which is supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy households. When the rubber price dropped during 1998–2001, the NTFPs income of Baka increased greatly from US$59.10 to US$145 per household, or from 6.4% to 26.6% of household gross income. In contrast, in Daka village, NTFPs income increased by insignificant amounts of US$1.6 per household in 1998 to US$23.8 in 2001, but this was compensated by an increase in income from off-farm work of US$11 to US$147 (an increase from 1.8% to 16.2% of gross income per household) from 1998 to 2001 in Daka. NTFPs retained important roles both in alleviating risk associated with monoculture price fluctuations and in generating income for relatively poor people.     

Demand for non-timber forest products: Surveys of urban consumers and sellers in Switzerland

In recent years, worldwide socioeconomic, ecological, and cultural changes have led to a paradigm shift in forestry and forest management. Some years ago, most forest enterprises exclusively focused on wood production, whereas today, forest management is expected to be multifunctional and economically as well as socially and ecologically sustainable [Harrison, S., Herbohn, J., Niskanen, A., 2002. Non-industrial, smallholder, small-scale and family forestry: what's in a name? Small-scale Forest Economics. Management and Policy 1 (1), 1–11; Schmithuesen, F., 2004. Forest policy developments in changing societies — political trends and challenges to research. Towards the sustainable use of Europe's forests: Forest ecosystems and landscape research: Joensuu: European Forest Institute, Proc., vol. 49, pp. 87–99]. In this context, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as forest honey, mushrooms, or berries could gain importance as an additional source of income for the forestry sector. To assess the market potential of NTFPs in Switzerland, two corresponding surveys were conducted. A consumer survey (N = 897) conducted in six cities in Switzerland investigated the purchase of Swiss NTFPs, consumer preferences, and demand potentials. An additional survey of sellers of NTFPs (N = 105) looked at these aspects from a complementary perspective. The results showed that there is a high esteem and considerable demand potential for such products among urban consumers. Food products were mentioned most frequently. Both consumers and sellers considered quality and environmental friendliness the most important attributes of NTFPs. Structural and organizational innovations and considerable marketing efforts and sales promotion would be required to expand the market for Swiss NTFP, however. Our results indicate that certification of the products' origin, environmental performance, and quality could support such efforts and that recreational and ecological forest services have a synergetic potential for the marketing of NTFPs.     

Non-Timber Forest Products Marketing Systems and Market Players in Southwest Virginia

Abstract

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are important in rural southwest Virginia as a source of household income. Marketing system of crafts, medicinal and herbal, and specialty wood products are studied using exploratory and qualitative research methods. Fifty market players at various levels in marketing chains are interviewed to get the information on elements of marketing system -products, product differentiation, value addition, pricing, promotion, distribution, and marketing chains. NTFP trade is a common phenomenon in southwest Virginia. The greatest opportunity exists for local level marketing of crafts and specialty wood products. In the case of medicinal and herbal products, very little local value addition takes place within the region, and as a result local market players have little control. Policy interventions are required to enhance the returns to local collectors, which will also contribute to sustainable management of forest resources.     

Economic contribution of wild edible mushrooms to a forest fringe ethnic community in some eastern lateritic parts of India

Dry deciduous forests of the eastern lateritic part of India are a typical case where forest valuation is yet to be integrated with the non-timber forest products like wild edible mushrooms (WEMs), which have a wide use in subsistence and cash income. A detailed accounting of the production and utilization of WEMs harvested from that region was made to highlight the economic worth of WEMs to the Santal community of this region. The WEMs production in the forest was in a polynomial pattern during the monsoon period. The net present value of revenues from WEMs was estimated to be contributing 9.83 and 10.29 % of total annual income of a Santal family of the Choupahari and Gonpur forests, respectively. The ecological footprint of the Santal communities on WEMs was higher in the forest area which was closer to the local markets than did the distant ones. Forest areas of the eastern lateritic part of India have a strong potentiality to produce WEMs that may be helpful for socio-economic upliftment of local tribal communities through the development of entrepreneurship and policy making.     

德钦县燕门乡非木材林产品保护与利用情况调查

运用社会调查学、参与式农村调查评估(PRA)、林业快速评估(FRA)方法对澜沧江流域德钦县燕门乡4个村10个村民小组居民的非木材林产品的利用和保护情况作了调查,结论为社区群众利用非木材林产品种类有7大类上千种.依据各自生活条件和所处环境的不同,利用方式和特点各不相同,但存在原始性和过度性利用的特点.在非木材林产品的利用中虽有各级政府及职能部门的干预以及"村规民约"的管理模式,但仍存在许多问题难以实现有效的管理.针对存在的问题,提出了相应的对策和建议.     

Socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community based forest management: A case study from Tobé-Kpobidon forest in Benin,Western Africa

Community forestry, promoted as a “win–win” forest management strategy yielded a variety of results that includes both failure and relative success. The willingness of government to hold control over forest resources while transferring only part of property rights to local communities is one of the major constraints. Therefore, there is a need to explore alternative approaches, which enhance the position and accountability of local communities in community forest management. This study evaluated socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community forestry in a context of important property rights conceded to local communities. The study was conducted using focus groups discussions, forest income evaluation and assessment of forest resources and their dynamics. Findings showed that institutional design with important property rights conceded to local communities partially empowered local communities and reduced threats while improving the condition of forest resources. The approach also yielded positive economic outcomes that enabled bordering populations to make up to 25% of their global annual income from the forest. However, the sustainability of this scheme of forest management was mostly limited by the financial dependency on local non-governmental organization, by local institutions and discrepancy in forest benefits sharing among local forest users.     

Developing a Community-Based Silvicultural System

Abstract

With the assistance of Maderas del Pueblo, the remote community of Chalchijapa in Oaxaca, Mexico is experimenting with an innovative forest management plan providing a long-term income source for the community, while emphasizing the importance of sustainable harvest guidelines. The plan is community-based in that ultimate responsibility for the implementation of the guidelines and monitoring of the process rests within the community. Under the forest management plan, Chalchijapan foresters apply single tree selection harvesting techniques. Currently, foresters are cutting the highest quality trees with the hope that the resulting gaps will be sufficient for regeneration. In order to be successful, planners and the community will have to overcome significant challenges. These challenges include: (1) fine-tuning selection criteria to the autecology of different species rather than assigning a cutting regime to cover entire plots of diverse species; (2) volume limitations that are constraining for the forester and result in high-grading practices which may lead to forest degradation over time; (3) inefficiency of tree removal and damage incurred by dragging logs into the village; and (4) designing a more equitable harvesting scheme to best serve the entire community. Although challenges remain, Chalchijapa has taken the first steps in using the resources in the surrounding forests while recognizing the importance of intelligent and well planned forestry practices.     

The compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product extraction and management

We discuss the extent of compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction in two neotropical localities from biophysical, social, and institutional perspectives: the community concession forests of the Petén, Guatemala, and extractivist communities in northern Bolivia. In both localities, timber is harvested via reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. In Guatemala, the main NTFP extracted is foliage from the understory xate palm (Chamaedorea spp.); in northern Bolivia, the fruits of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa). The Guatemalan case suggests a relatively high degree of compatibility due to low timber harvesting intensities, coupled with temporal, spatial, and social segregation of xate extraction in a well-defined land tenure system. In northern Bolivia, forest management regulations pay little attention to NTFPs and land tenure issues and related conflict complicate efforts to limit timber harvesting impacts on Brazil nut trees. The introduction of timber management plans overlain on customary property rights systems in which the extraction of Brazil nut is organized could undercut its management system. The two case studies suggest that specific legislative, education, and project interventions may help to promote the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction and management. These include formal training of foresters on NTFP ecology and management while taking into account the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in the design of management plans. Tropical forest users, research managers, and policy makers will also better understand the need for integrated management of timber and NTFPs, if the trade-offs and potential economic benefits from NTFP extraction are clarified.     

Comparison of potential non-timber forest products in intensively managed young stands and mature/old-growth forests in south-central British Columbia

Development of understory vegetation has been influenced by the many densely stocked second-growth forest stands in North America, which have an extended stem exclusion successional stage. Understory composition and structure is important for ecosystem functioning, while also having social and economic value through the harvest of certain herb and shrub species. The potential for co-management of young and mature, managed and unmanaged stands for timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) was assessed in two separate replicated experiments. Experiment A examined pole-sized lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stands that had been pre-commercially thinned (PCT) to target densities of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 stems/ha. Half of each of these four thinning units was repeatedly fertilized, resulting in eight experimental units. Experiment B examined six different stand types: young plantations, pole-sized lodgepole pine stands either PCT, PCT plus repeated fertilization, or unthinned, mature, and old growth. Fifty-four herb and shrub species were identified as potential NTFPs, with the responses of individual species, as well as mean total herb, shrub, berry-producing and overall total NTFPs being assessed. In Experiment A, mean total abundance (crown volume index) of NTFPs, as well as mean total herb NTFPs were significantly greater in fertilized than in unfertilized stands. Thinning treatments did not significantly affect NTFP volume, however, fertilization treatments produced five significant responses by individual species (Achillea millefolium, Epilobium angustifolium, Taraxacum officinale, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Rubus idaeus). In Experiment B, four of the six species responses that were significant had greater abundance in young, managed stands (young plantation, thinned, or thinned-fertilized) than in the unmanaged stands. Mean total NTFP volume and mean total herb NTFP volume also followed this pattern. A. uva-ursi, E. angustifolium, Lonicera involucrata, Sorbus sitchensis and Thalictrum occidentale all had significantly higher abundance in young, managed stands than in all other treatments. Results suggest that co-management for timber and NTFPs is possible in this ecosystem, with further research needed to evaluate livelihood values of these crops.