黄土高原粗质地土壤剖面水分运动与浅层地下水补给可能性模拟

黄土高原水土流失严重,生态环境脆弱,水资源短缺,地下水对保障区域社会经济发展和维持生态系统平衡具有重要意义,而该区的地下水转化和补给机制尚不明确。为探究黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区土壤剖面深层水分运动及降水对浅层地下水补给的可能性,利用六道沟小流域分布的粗质地风沙土样地2013—2016年土壤剖面0~600 cm含水量数据,运用HYDRUS-1D模型对各土层水力参数进行反演和验证,并用于模拟样地土壤深剖面0~1 500 cm水分运移过程。结果显示,在平水年2014年(439 mm)和干旱年2015年(371 mm),0~600 cm土壤含水量生长季末与生长季初持平或略有亏缺;降水充沛年2013年(669 mm)和2016年(704 mm)土壤含水量生长季末远高于生长季初,降水入渗深度超过观测深度(600 cm)。深剖面水分运动模拟显示,2014年和2015年剖面含水量变化不明显,水分向深层运移微弱缓慢;但是,2013年和2016年降水可分别入渗运移至1 100 cm和1 200 cm深度,远超过样地上生长的旱柳根系区域,可能补给浅层地下水。在4年模拟期间,平均土壤蒸发为14.87 cm·a-1,平均植物蒸腾为33.70 cm·a-1,土壤水分主要以植物蒸腾形式损耗。在2个丰水年,得益于较充足的降水和粗质地风沙土壤的高入渗率,降水大量转化为土壤水快速向下入渗运移,模拟显示当年生长季末降水最深运移至1 200 cm,至年末已超过模拟深度(1 500 cm),水分继续运移可能补给浅层地下水。相关研究结果为黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区地下水来源和补给机制提供理论依据。     

Impact of direct drilling and conventional tillage on seasonal changes of soil water content in Chromic Haploxerert (south-west Spain)

A continuous monitoring of spatial and temporal variability of soil water content was studied under two soil management systems: direct drilling (DD) and conventional tillage (CT), during four consecutive seasons. The soil water content was read at different soil depths using multisensor capacitance probes in each soil-management treatment. During the first season (2003–2004), soil water content dynamics for both treatments were similar during the rainy season, although the DD plot was able to retain more water in the soil profile, and during the maximum evapotranspirative period faster soil water depletion took place in the CT plot. The 2004–2005 season registered a high evapotranspiration rate (1741 mm) with low rainfall (228 mm), promoting a low soil water recharge for both treatments. The 2005–2006 season registered an increase in rainfall, promoting a greater recovery of the soil water reserve in DD than CC plot. Finally, during the 2006–2007 season with an evapotranspiration rate ET₀ and rainfall of 1504 and 560 mm, respectively, DD retained more soil water content, mainly in the deeper zones, with progressive soil water depletion during the maximum evapotranspirative period in comparison to CT. Thus, DD was demonstrated to be a promising soil management technique for improving the soil water content.     

渭北高原矮化红富士苹果树蒸腾规律及水分供求关系

利用热扩散茎流测定系统（TDP）对渭北高原矮化红富士树干液流进行长期定点定位观测,结果表明:苹果树在自然降水条件下和充分灌水条件下蒸腾规律在不同月份表现为其启动时间、峰值出现时间及变化趋势基本相似,但是峰值的大小和每天的蒸腾量具有一定的差异性。就试验年而言,在充分灌水条件下,苹果树一年蒸腾量为643.80 mm,在自然降水条件下为520.35 mm,自然降水条件下水分亏缺123.45 mm。苹果树生长季节中的7-9月的降水基本上可以满足蒸腾量之需,但是3-6月苹果树的水分供求关系矛盾比较突出,应该加强水分补给。     

毛乌素沙地农田土壤水分动态特征研究

毛乌素沙地农业种植以春玉米为主,水资源短缺是制约当地农业发展的主要因素,研究农田土壤水分动态对指导当地农业生产具有重要意义。本研究以原位试验为主,通过对地下水、土壤含水率、土水势、灌溉降雨、蒸腾蒸发等数据的监测和分析,对毛乌素沙地春玉米生长过程中的土壤水分动态特征进行研究。结果表明:地下水与土壤水之间存在明显的水力联系,Pearson相关性分析发现,各深度土壤含水率与地下水埋深之间均呈显著相关,其中40~60 cm深处相关性最大,相关系数大于0.8;地下水位的下降降低了土壤含水率稳定层的位置,削弱了上下层土壤之间的水力联系,不利于土壤水分的保持;玉米需水量增加和地下水位下降均会导致土壤含水率在垂向剖面上的不规律变化增强。通过对土壤含水率和土水势监测数据的分析发现,在玉米从苗期至蜡熟期的生长过程中,土壤水分动态经历了弱—强—弱的变化过程,并且20 cm深土层是春玉米的主要吸水层,30~40 cm是相对干燥层,由于田间灌溉在春玉米发生水分胁迫时进行,因此可利用30 cm和40 cm深土层含水率判断玉米是否需要灌溉。受春玉米生理作用影响,当10 cm深处土水势值下降到低于-0.18 bar时会出现根系提水现象。本研究结果可以为毛乌素沙地地区的农田水分利用及水资源管理提供重要的理论依据和参考信息。     

采煤扰动下潜水位及包气带水分变化特征

为更好地了解采煤扰动下潜水位及包气带水分变化规律,在陕北典型矿区开展了降雨、潜水位、包气带土壤含水率等水循环要素的野外原位观测试验,基于观测数据,采用Spearman秩相关系数检验、小波分析等方法,分析了未开采区及采空区潜水位和包气带水分的变化特征。结果表明：未开采区地下水位对于降水的响应明显且时间上存在4、5个月的滞后,采煤扰动后,地下潜水位持续下降,与降水响应关系微弱;在垂向上,未开采区较大降水可对100 cm以下埋深的土壤含水率产生影响,采空区土壤含水率总体减小,且同降水的响应程度不显著,含水率最大值相对于未开采区出现时间提前,50 cm以下埋深的土壤含水率对小强度降水无响应。采煤扰动潜水位下降后造成包气带增厚,包气带损耗的水量增加,随之造成降雨入渗补给地下水减少,进一步加剧了潜水位下降。     

Water table is a relevant source for water uptake by a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand: Evidences from continuous evapotranspiration and water table monitoring

The objective of this study was to quantify the main terms of the water cycle in a Scots pine stand (Pinus sylvestris L.) growing on a sandy soil and to estimate the contribution of the shallow water table (0.80 m deep in spring) to the forest water use. Continuous monitoring was organized in 2005 to measure climate, throughfall, soil moisture, tree transpiration and water table variations at a half-hourly basis. Leaf area index seasonal dynamic was measured and roots were counted down to the bottom of the soil profile. Forest floor evapotranspiration was modelled with Granier et al. [Granier, A., Bréda, N., Biron, P., Villette, S., 1999. A lumped water balance model to evaluate duration and intensity of drought constraints in forest stands. Ecol. Model. 116, 269–283]. From May to November, pine transpiration never exceeded 1.85 mm d⁻¹ and reached a total of 176.4 mm, which corresponded to 25% of potential evapotranspiration, whereas the understorey evapotranspiration was 130 mm (i.e. 18–20% of the stand water use). The maximum soil water reserve measured over the soil rooted zone was 250 mm, in which 145 mm was extractable water. A 3.5-week period with no rain was observed in June, which induced a regulation of pine transpiration when the soil extractable water reached 0.25 of its maximum value.We applied the water table fluctuation (WTF) method [White, W., 1932. A method for estimating groundwater supplies based on discharge by plants and evaporation from soil. US Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 659-A. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC] to estimate the water table daily loss of water. A relationship was established with potential evapotranspiration and the actual transpiration fluxes of the stand. Yet, it was not possible to extract from the WTF results the part that was effectively contributing to actual transpiration. We applied then the WTF methodology on longer time intervals, with a focus on periods with no rains. From May to November, the contribution of the water table to forest transpiration reached 61%. During the drought period in June, the water table contributed to 98.5% of the water uptake by vegetation, through its contribution to the capillary rise above the water table. The presence of a groundwater table with a floor down to 180–200 cm allowed this stand to rely upon water that otherwise would have drained deeper.     

降雨入渗条件下厚包气带土壤水流通量的模拟与分析

降雨较少的半干旱半湿润地区大范围的厚包气带中土壤水运动的研究越来越受到关注,其中厚包气带对降雨补给浅层地下水特征的影响是重要的研究问题。探究厚包气带情形下降雨对浅层地下水的补给作用和机理可为分析人类干扰情况下水文循环规律的变化、合理地制定水资源开发利用规划提供理论依据。本文以北京市大兴区新凤河流域采育镇由GEOPROBE钻机获得的9.6m厚包气带土壤样品为研究对象,在室内详细测得土壤特性数据的基础上,运用HYSRUS-1D软件模拟55a降雨入渗条件下的一维土壤水流动态过程,分析土壤水流通量的时空变异特征,探讨用较浅层位(2m深度附近)的土壤水流通量来估算深层土壤水渗漏量的可行性,旨在为野外裸地厚包气带条件下评价降雨入渗对浅层地下水的补给提供简捷实用的方法。研究结果表明:该地区多年自然降雨条件下的平均土壤水分深层渗漏量为131.03mm,多年平均降雨入渗补给系数约为0.21。其中,平水年对应的平均降雨入渗补给系数约为0.18。当模拟时段达到55年时,土壤剖面2m以下的入渗通量几乎不随深度变化而变化。这一实际案例的研究结果对该区域宏观水资源管理和评价具有一定的参考价值。     

自然降雨对干化土壤水分恢复有效性分析

研究自然降雨对干化土壤水分恢复的有效性,有利于合理利用降水资源,加强干化土壤水分管理,促进土壤干层得到有效恢复。在陕北米脂试验站设置野外地下大型土柱,通过2014—2019年连续定位监测降雨、土壤含水率状况,分析自然降雨对干化土壤水分恢复的有效性。结果表明:(1)从深层干化土壤水分恢复角度考虑,黄土丘陵半干旱区降雨可以分为3种类型:表层入渗快速蒸发型、浅层入渗缓慢蒸发型和深层入渗补给型。其中深层入渗补给型降雨为有效降雨,该类型雨量>26 mm,能够对深层干化土壤产生有效水分补给。2014—2019年发生深层入渗补给型降雨仅16次,累积雨量791.8 mm,降雨次数、降雨量的有效率分别为4.64%和35.19%。(2)月尺度条件下,降雨量(P月)与逐月入渗深度(Z逐月)、月累积入渗深度(Z累积)均呈二次函数关系变化,Z逐月=-0.0102P月2+3.955P月-6.7335(R^2=0.9639),Z累积=-0.0003P月2-0.1331P月+191.71(R^2=0.9208)。(3)年尺度条件下,2014—2019年雨量分别为187.6,391.6,590.8,337.6,342.4,400.0 mm,降雨逐年引发的入渗深度依次为160,220,400,260,260,120 cm,累积入渗深度依次可达180,220,400,700,1000,1400 cm。研究结果对揭示自然降水恢复干化土壤机理,加强土壤干层人工蓄水保墒技术,合理选择保墒措施,以及促进当地生态环境建设具有积极的推动作用。     

地下水位较高条件下不同根区湿润方式对梨树根与茎液流及其水分平衡的影响

为了探讨地下水位较高条件下根区湿润方式对梨树根和茎液流及水分平衡的影响，开展了较系统的试验研究。试验共设三种处理，即传统畦灌（CFI），部分根干燥灌溉（PRD）和分根区交替灌溉（ARDI），分别使用土壤水分监测系统（EnviroSCAN）和热脉冲探针监测土壤水分动态和梨树根和茎液流。结果表明在PRD和ARDI情况下湿润根区的根液流不仅大于干燥根区，而且也大于CFI情况下的相同区域。复水后，ARDI干燥区的根液流比PRD的恢复和提高快得多，并且比CFI的大；ARDI的茎液流比CFI的小，但比PRD保持一侧根干燥时的大。在只有一侧根区灌溉时，ARDI和PRD的日耗水量比CFI的小。ARDI和PRD中湿润侧的根系具有水分吸收补偿效应，当干燥根区复水后能够提高水分的吸收能力，其程度与根区持续干燥的时间长短有关。逐日根液流与参考作物蒸发蒸腾量关系密切，但随着表面灌溉方式和湿润根区的不同这些关系明显的不一样。逐日茎液流与参考作物蒸发蒸腾量有关，而且在不同的表面灌溉方式下，土壤含水率相同时茎液流和参考作物蒸发蒸腾量的比率不同。与CFI相比，ARDI和PRD大约少用50%的灌溉水量，但是梨树的水分消耗量和茎液流并没减少相同的比例。表面湿润方式对水量平衡和液流的作用明显受到地下水位的影响。在ARDI和PRD条件下的地下水利用量比CFI条件下有明显增加。     

Studies on Material Cycling in Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest Ecosystem in Hangzhou: Ⅰ. Precipitation Distribution

Through the long-term plot studies plot studies on the precipitation distribution in the evergreen broad-leaved forest ecosystem in Hangzhou for two years,it was indicated that the pattern of precipitation distribution included larger amounts of penetration water and stemflow and a lower amount of interception water.The results revealed that the main factors to infulence the percentages of penetration and stemflow were the air temperature and the leaf area of the forest.The quantity of seepage through the litter layer was much larger than that through the soil layers which decreased sharply with soil depth.The output of water from the ecosystem by surface runoff and deep infiltration through the soil was much lower,only being 5.20 percent of the rainfall,while the water evapotranspiration loss was as large as more than 90 percent of it.The losses by the soil evaporation and plant evapotranspiration were the largest part of output in this forest ecosystem.     

覆盖方式对夏玉米土壤水分和产量的影响

为探索半湿润偏旱区不同覆盖栽培模式夏玉米田土壤蓄水保墒和增产效果,于2014年6-10月在陕西杨凌节水灌溉试验站,通过设置垄覆地膜沟覆秸秆（PSM）、全覆膜平作（PM）、覆秸秆平作（SM）、露地平作（CK）4种栽培模式进行玉米种植试验,对0-200cm土壤不同深度土层含水率进行全生育期动态监测,分析比较各种模式下土壤含水率、土层贮水量以及作物耗水量的变化规律,并结合产量资料计算各种种植模式的水分利用效率。结果表明：一次30.5mm降水过程结束后,PSM处理的集水作用最明显,降水2d后,垄沟中40cm土层土壤含水率最高,达35.8%。与降水2d后相比,降水6d后,CK、PSM处理沟中（PSM-F）、PM和SM处理40cm土层土壤含水率分别下降10.3%、2.9%、1.8%和0.2%,而PSM处理垄下（PSM-B）含水率则提高10.4%。PSM处理在干旱季沟中和垄下土壤含水量差异明显,降雨较多时,沟垄土壤含水率基本达到平衡。PSM、PM和SM处理能显著提高玉米生育期0-20cm土层贮水量,其中以PSM处理最为显著;各处理苗期以后20-100cm土层贮水量均低于对照;100-200cm土层贮水量以SM处理最高,PSM处理最低。夏玉米产量与拔节-灌浆期耗水量呈显著正相关（r=0.98*）。PSM、PM和SM处理的玉米产量较CK分别提高95.3%、83.1%和55.4%,水分利用效率较对照分别提高75.7%、71.0%和58.8%。研究结果表明垄覆地膜沟覆秸秆栽培模式能够显著提高玉米产量和水分利用效率,适宜在半湿润偏旱区夏玉米生产中应用。     

华北平原典型井灌区农田水循环过程研究回顾

本文回顾了中国科学院栾城农业生态系统试验站在农田水分循环和水量转化方面的研究工作和进展。目前, 对于冬小麦-夏玉米农田的蒸散耗水量及其结构(植物蒸腾和土壤蒸发)有较详细的研究结果。全年总蒸散量多年平均870 mm, 每年亏缺的350 mm 左右需要靠提取地下水保证; 同位素分析结果显示土壤蒸发的深度在地表下20 cm 处, 而植物蒸腾耗水也主要是利用0~40 cm 土层的土壤水分。对于土壤深层渗漏量和地下水接受垂直补给的问题, 不同研究结果间仍然存在较大差异, 尚需更精细的试验来确定。对于区域水量平衡和地下水资源可持续性的评价和管理, 目前急需重点开展区域蒸散量的精确估算和模拟研究, 以及不同土地利用和不同农业种植方式的水量平衡与水分转化过程研究。     

Effects of vegetation and slope aspect on water budget in the hill and gully region of the Loess Plateau of China

Precipitation, throughfall, stemflow and soil water content were measured, and interception, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, deep percolation and soil water recharge were estimated in the natural Liaotung Oak (Quercus liaotungensis) and regrown Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) forestlands in the hill and gully region of the China Loess Plateau. Four stands (south- and north-facing slopes) of two forests were studied between May 27, 2006 and October 31, 2007. Hydrological fluxes were calculated using a coupled water and heat flow model called CoupModel. Throughfall, stemflow and soil water content were used to calibrate the model. The simulations indicated that, interception, vegetation transpiration and soil water evaporation were the main components of water consumption in the 4 stands, accounting for about 90% of the precipitation. The simulated interception and vegetation transpiration in the south-facing slope (154 and 327 mm in regrown forestland and 173 and 338 mm in natural forestland) were lower than those in the north-facing slope (219 and 344 mm in regrown forestland and 203 and 342 mm in natural forestland). Soil water evaporation in the south-facing slope (416 mm in regrown forestland and 373 mm in natural forestland) was larger than that in the north-facing slope (325 mm in regrown forestland and 330 mm in natural forestland) in the same vegetation stands. This was mainly due to greater vegetation density in the north-facing slope than in the south-facing slope. For the regrown forestlands, the simulated soil water recharge was larger under north-facing slope stands (90 mm) than under south-facing slope stands (76 mm), and the natural forestland in the north-facing slope had the largest soil water recharge (104 mm). The results indicated that vegetation species and slope aspects significantly influenced the water balance budget in the soil–vegetation–atmosphere system. The water budget differences among the 4 stands indicate that care is required for properly selecting regrown tree-species. Soil and water conservation measures must be applied scientifically when converting farmland to forest in the Loess Plateau of China, especially on the south-facing slopes.     

Soil water content measurements deliver reliable estimates of water fluxes: A comparative study in a beech and a spruce stand in the Tharandt forest (Saxony, Germany)

Previous studies have shown that soil water content can vary considerably within homogeneous sites. This small-scale variability of soil water is often neglected when studying water and carbon fluxes in forest ecosystems. In this paper, the small-scale variability of soil water was analyzed at two contrasting eddy-flux sites, a Norway spruce forest and a European beech forest. Simultaneous measurements of precipitation, eddy covariance, and sap flow, from soil water content readings, were used to answer the question of how representative soil water gain is during rainfall and evapotranspiration is during dry periods.Our study demonstrates that the spatial and temporal variability in soil water under spruce and beech was mainly due to the differences in soil properties and root intensity. This can be concluded from the fact that the pattern of soil moisture distribution and flow paths under the trees were generally stable throughout the season. As a tendency, areas with preferred accumulation of rainwater were mainly characterized by maximum soil water depletion. Therefore, the density of the installed water content sensors should correspond to the variability of soil properties as well as rooting intensity. Based on previous studies and our own results, it can be concluded that a horizontal and vertical distance between 10 and 30 cm is best suited for water content sensors to detect preferential flow paths and deliver reliable estimates of soil water balance.Despite the occurrence of preferential flow, we found that the soil water increase during rainstorm periods and the soil water depletion during dry periods can be estimated relatively well when the small-scale variability of soil properties is considered in the experimental setup. In general, the evaporation estimates based on eddy covariance, sap flow, and soil water balance were consistent. However, compared to the spruce site, at the beech site the gap between the evapotranspiration estimates based on eddy covariance and soil water balance were often relatively large. Differences in the spatial extent of these methods can only explain these discrepancies to a certain extent. We suggest that this might be mainly due to the lack of water content sensors in the immediate vicinity of the beech tree trunk. Thus, stemflow-induced wetting and subsequent drying around the trunk could not be monitored in our study. This may result in an underestimation of evaporation from the soil under beech using the soil water balance method compared to the eddy covariance method. Finally, soil water depletion under spruce led to a significant reduction of transpiration when the actual available plant soil capacity (AWC) was <40% of the potential AWC. In contrast to the spruce stand, a reduction of transpiration of beech due to water shortage was not observed.     

北京山区侧柏林蒸散拆分研究

以北京山区广泛分布的侧柏林为研究对象,分别采用水文学实测法(树干液流计结合大型蒸渗仪)和稳定同位素法对林分蒸散量进行定量拆分研究。结果表明:(1)在日尺度上,该林分的蒸散量和蒸腾量均显现为"单峰"型的变化曲线。林分总的蒸散量和蒸腾量均在正午前后达到最大值,分别为1.27,1.13 mm/h;(2)实测法和稳定同位素法对侧柏林蒸腾量占总蒸散量的计算结果分别为80.21%～89.63%和79.10%～98.71%。相比水文学实测法,稳定同位素法在小时尺度上误差为(3.97±3.53)%,而在日尺度上误差为(1.89±0.67)%。该林分蒸散主要来自于植被蒸腾,林木蒸腾耗水远大于土壤蒸发耗水。     

夏闲期降水对黄土旱塬冬小麦水氮利用效率的影响

黄土旱塬冬小麦生长所需的水分主要来源于大气降水,分析夏闲期降水对土壤水分的补给对于发展田间水分管理措施和补充灌溉技术具有重要意义。该文利用不同的水肥耦合处理试验,研究了不同水肥耦合处理下夏闲期降水对土壤水分补给量以及对翌年作物耗水量、水分利用效率、产量、小穗数、穗粒数、千粒质量的影响。结果表明,夏闲期降水量对土壤水分的补给量有极显著的影响(P0.01);冬小麦生育期不同的水肥耦合处理对夏闲期土壤水分补给有显著的影响(P0.05)。收获期土壤水分亏缺度在43.68%~52.63%之间时土壤水分的补给系数较高(51.84%~67.42%),且二者存在良好的幂函数关系;翌年冬小麦生育期耗水量的贡献率、水分利用效率、产量、小穗数、穗粒数、千粒质量均与土壤水分补给系数呈幂函数关系,且在土壤水分补给系数为25%~40%时冬小麦水分利用效率、产量、小穗数、穗粒数、千粒质量分别达到最大值。研究可为旱塬农田水分管理提供参考。     

On the Fundamental Causes of High Environmental Alkalinity (pH ≥ 9): An Assessment of Its Drivers and Global Distribution

Very alkaline environments exceeding calcite buffering are globally rare but conspicuous in many sedimentary plains of the World. While the deleterious effects of high alkalinity on soils are well understood, less agreement exists on its causes. We revise these causes to understand these exceptional environments and explain the pervasiveness of calcite buffering elsewhere. We argue that the injection of respired CO₂ into stagnant hydrological systems subject to evaporative discharge is the key context for high alkalinization. The evolution of evaporites in nature reaches highly alkaline stages only when excess of (bi)carbonate with respect to divalent cations occurs. In most dry landscapes, evaporating groundwater solutions lose this condition as respired inorganic carbon (recharge zone supply) equilibrates with divalent cations from rocks (whole hydro‐trajectory supply). Groundwater in stagnant landscapes avoids this limitation owing to short/shallow trajectories sustaining (bi)carbonate excess until evaporative discharge zones are reached. Flat sedimentary landscapes that are (i) wet enough to develop stagnation and have shallow water tables but (ii) sufficiently dry to expose them to evaporative concentration should host very alkaline soils. This is confirmed with >9,000 soil profiles from the global WISE database, which shows that profiles with pH ≥ 9 in the top meter are 2·7% globally but 18% in areas with low slope (<0·05%, 25‐km radius, SRTM digital elevation model (SRTM DEM)) and semiarid–subhumid climate (annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration ratio = 0·2–1, CRU database). Understanding how climate and vegetation change as well as irrigation practices influence hydrological stagnation and evaporative concentration may provide the key to manage very alkaline environments. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Primary limitation on vegetation productivity shifts from precipitation in dry years to nitrogen in wet years in a degraded arid steppe of Inner Mongolia,northern China

Purpose

Arid steppes in northern China have degraded severely in recent decades due to frequent human activities, resulting in poor soil quality and thus low productivity. The objective of the current study was to investigate whether nitrogen addition was a useful approach to improve productivity of these degraded steppes in Inner Mongolia.

Materials and methods

In the current study, severely degraded arid steppe was fenced in June 2014 and then fertilized for consecutive 3 years, 2014, 2015, and 2016. There were four nitrogen fertilization rates, 0, 50, 100, and 150 kg N ha^?1, and two phosphorus rates, 0 and 60 kg P₂O₅ ha^?1. Each treatment replicated three times, with each plot size reaching 400 m² (20 m?×?20 m). The annual precipitation in 2014 and 2016 were 255 and 309 mm (dry years), respectively, lower than that (412 mm) in 2015 (wet year).

Results and discussion

The results indicated that aboveground biomass in wet years was significantly higher than that in dry years, suggesting that water is the most important limiting factor influencing steppe productivity. Plant nitrogen concentration in Stipa krylovii (dominant species) was positively correlated with the concentrations of soil available nitrogen and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), confirming that the plant adsorbed more nitrogen under fertilization and thus increasing the NUE. The NUE and water use efficiency (WUE) in wet year were higher than those in dry years and a positive correlation was also observed between WUE and NUE, confirming that the NUE was relied mainly on precipitation.

Conclusions

Nitrogen fertilization was effective in increasing grassland production in wet years but not in dry years, suggesting that the primary limitation on grassland productivity in this ecosystem might shift from precipitation in dry years to nitrogen in wet years. Higher NUE could be obtained under low nitrogen rates in wet years. Therefore, in degraded arid steppe, low nitrogen rate (50 kg N ha^?1) was recommended in wet years to improve steppe productivity.

     

Evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge – A case study for different climate,crop patterns,soil properties and groundwater depth conditions -

Actual evapotranspiration and net groundwater recharge (drainage minus capillary rise) as a function of climate, soil properties, land use and groundwater depth were determined for a 15-year period in the region north of Hannover, West-Germany. Calculations were done using a simulation model calibrated for cropland, grassland and coniferous forest. Results of a sensitivity study showed, that the influence of climatic factors on actual evapotranspiration and net groundwater recharge increases with the amount of plant available water during the vegetation period. Under similar climatic conditions, evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge mainly depend on the two basic soil-physical relations between. – soil water content and suction and – soil hydraulic conductivity and suction. For same groundwater depths, evapotranspiration rises with increasing plant available water in the rootzone, whereas groundwater recharge decreases.     

Experimental and numerical study of water flow in soil under irrigation in northern Senegal: evidence of air entrapment

Irrigation by surge flooding does not always wet the soils thoroughly, and we have investigated the reasons for this on an irrigated plot in northern Senegal by monitoring the water budget during a rice cropping season (100 days). The amount of water added during each irrigation event was measured, and evapotranspiration and infiltration were estimated with lysimeters and Muntz infiltration rings, respectively. At the same time, piezometric levels, neutron probe values and water tension data were recorded at two stations in the plot. These measurements showed unusual results: infiltration rate was less than 1 × 10^?6 mm s^?1 (less than 0.1 mm a day), there was a constant water deficit during the entire irrigation period, around 50 cm deep, and tensiometers at 40 cm reacted very slowly to water infiltration. The water fluxes in the vadose zone derived from these data showed clearly a discrepancy between fluxes calculated from hydraulic gradients and fluxes calculated from mass conservation. The hydraulic gradients suggested a zero flux plane at 40 cm below the surface, but the calculated values of the fluxes overestimated by several orders of magnitude the infiltration rates determined on the plot, whereas fluxes determined from mass conservation matched far better. These results show that air was entrapped between the shallow water table and the wetting front, and this inhibited water infiltration. Modelling water flow down the soil profile with a computer program for simulating one‐dimensional water movement (Hydrus) confirmed that single‐phase models cannot describe imbibition in this situation. Simple infiltration models based on a modified Green–Ampt equation accounting for air compression and air counter‐flow, however, fit experimental infiltration data much better. We demonstrated that where surge flooding is associated with a shallow water table, as in many large irrigation schemes, one must take into account the presence of air to quantify the flow of water into the soil.