CONIFEROUS LITTER AMENDMENTS AND THE GROWTH OF SITKA SPRUCE

The growth of semi-checked Sitka spruce (Picea sitcbensis Carr.)on heathland has been stimulated to different degrees by theannual application of litter of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.), Corsican pine (P. nigra var. calabrica Schneid), Lodgepolepine (P. contorta Dougl.), Japanese larch (Larix leptolepisGord.), and Sitka spruce, at rates corresponding to normal plantationconditions, following an initial heavier rate. Foliar analysissuggests that the response is at least partially attributableto the influence of the litters on the nitrogen nutrition ofthe spruce and differences between litters appear to be largelydetermined by their total nitrogen contents. In this respect,Japanese larch, with an annual needle fall generally greaterthan that of the pines and a higher nitrogen content, offersthe best promise as a nurse species for spruce.     

Movement of Injected Dyes in Gymnosperm Stems in Relation to Tracheid Alignment

The path of upward movement of acid fuchsin dye was traced inpole-size stems of Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis Murr.),European larch (Larix decidua Mill.), Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparislawsoniana (A. Murr. Parl.)), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis(Bong. Carr.)), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), andScots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). In all of these species amarked, preponderantly clockwise spiral pattern of dye ascentwas observed. In general the upward movement of the dye followedtracheid alignment, except at the sapwood-heartwood boundary.The characteristic patterns of dye movement indicated that spiralgrain was much commoner than was straight grain among the pole-sizegymnosperms investigated. Large differences in spiral grainwere found among species, among trees within species, in differentannual rings within trees, and at different stem heights. Patternsof dye uptake were influenced somewhat by the method of injection.Dye injections through tubes driven into the stem were foundmore suitable for determining tracheid arrangement than wereinjections through individual roots immersed in dye. Factorsinfluencing spiral grain development and applications of thedye injection technique to spiral grain determination are discussed.     

日本落叶松在山西太行山南段平顺山地引种的效果分析

一、生态条件的比较日本落叶松[Larix Kaempferi(lamb.)Carr.]是速生的针叶树种之一。原产地仅局限于日本本州岛的中央高地和关东山地,分布区很狭窄,介于东径136°45′-140°30′,北纬35°08′-38°05′,海拔高1300-2680(1000-2800)m,呈星散分布。较大面积的天然纯林和针叶树种混交林分布在高达3000m的飞(?)山、木曾山、赤石山脉和御岳山及关东山地的富士山、天守山、八岳、浅间山一带的火山坡地。这一地带总的属温带海洋性季风气候,比大陆同纬度温和,夏季生长期多雨,相对湿度大。但由于日本落叶松的原产地处于亚热带暖温带过渡地带的高海拔山区,为内陆性气候,雨量较沿海为少;特别是山地气候     

The effect of bark decortication for hiwada production on xylem and phloem formation in Chamaecyparis obtusa

Of all plant materials used to cover the roofs of traditional Japanese buildings, Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) bark, hiwada, has the longest service life and has been used from ancient times. However, wood and bark properties after hiwada harvest have not been evaluated in detail. We studied whether decortication for hiwada production in winter affected xylem and phloem formation. Decorticated trees still preserved all inner bark and part of the outer bark, and both decorticated and control trees had similar annual ring structures at all stem heights in the xylem and phloem. In both xylem and inner bark, no significant difference in ring width at any stem height was found between annual rings before and after decortication. Thus, this study revealed that the decortication of bark for hiwada production does not affect the formation of xylem and the inner and outer bark if decortication is carried out by highly skilled workers in winter.     

Radial variation in partial compression properties perpendicular to the grain of Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi)

This study investigated the densities, average width of annual rings, and partial compression stresses at 5 % strain perpendicular to the grain of air-dried wood specimens, which were continuous in the radial direction from the pith and were obtained from Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) trees with different diameters at breast height in the same stand, to evaluate the radial variations in partial compression properties perpendicular to the grain. The air-dried densities of the wood increased with the distance from the pith. The average width of annual rings of the wood tended to decrease with increasing distance from the pith and those of medium- and large-diameter trees seemed to increase near the pith. The partial compression stresses at 5 % strain in the tangential loading direction tended to increase with the distance from the pith and with air-dried wood density. However, in the radial loading direction, this tendency was not observed. The partial compression stresses at 5 % strain in the radial loading direction tended to be low in wood with a small average width of annual rings. These results indicate that the factors affecting the radial variations in the partial compression stress at 5 % strain differ depending on the loading directions.     

THIRTY YEARS' DEVELOPMENT OF AFFORESTATION TECHNIQUES ON DIFFICULT GROUND TYPES IN SOUTH-WEST SCOTLAND

The development of ploughing, draining, planting, and the useof turfs and of phosphate is considered in detail for each oftwo main types. For Molinia lands, the 1952 technique securesadequate drainage and a very considerable turnover of turf,and here the spruces Picea abies Karst. and P. sitcbensis Carr.remain the first choice. For Calluna lands, the developmentof methods and the choice of species is more difficult. Thespruces refuse to grow pure and unnursed on the poorer Callunatypes and the use of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), P. contortaDoug., the Mountain pine (P. uncinata Ramond), Japanese larch(Larix leptolepis Gord.), and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifoliaBrit.) is discussed. The main requirements for successful afforestationof these ground types are summarized.     

Growth and Wood Properties of Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) in Nursing Mixtures Established on Nitrogen-deficient Mineral Soils

Rate of growth and wood properties of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) were investigated in triplet mixtures with lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Loud.) (Alaskan provenance) and Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr.), established on nitrogen-deficient, iron pan soils. These ?nursing? mixtures were compared with pure stands of Sitka spruce that had been either regularly or periodically fertilized with nitrogen. Japanese larch promoted a growth rate in Sitka spruce greater than that achieved in the lodgepole pine-nursed spruce and equivalent to the two pure spruce treatments over the duration of the experiment (current age 28 yrs). Growth of regularly fertilized pure Sitka spruce was not significantly greater than that of periodically fertilized pure spruce. Alaskan lodgepole pine controlled branch size on the lower part of the spruce stems more effectively than the other treatments, although this may have been a function of tree size. Branch characteristics of Japanese larch-nursed spruce, however, were similar to those of the pure spruce treatments. Japanese larch caused an imbalance in crown development in the spruce, although it is unclear from the present study whether this will have an influence on stem and wood quality by the end of the rotation. Overall, the evidence from this study suggests that Japanese larch is an effective nurse of Sitka spruce on nitrogen-deficient iron pans, maintaining a rate of growth similar to that of pure Sitka spruce periodically fertilized with nitrogen and higher than that observed in spruce nursed by Alaskan lodgepole pine.     

Estimated amount of carbon accumulation of hybrid larch in three 31-year-old progeny test plantations

Hybrids generated by crossing Kuril larch (Larix gmelinii var. japonica) and Japanese larch (L. kaempferi) are expected to have high carbon accumulation ability because of fast growth and high wood density in Hokkaido, Japan. We estimated the amount of carbon accumulation of the hybrid larch in three progeny test plantations consisting of 21 full-sib families and compared the results to the carbon accumulation of open-pollinated progenies of Japanese larch plus-trees (improved Japanese larch). Gene-environment interactions were not observed for tree height and diameter at breast height but were seen for wood density (area-weighted density, AWD). The amount of carbon accumulated per unit area (C_stand) positively correlated with the stand volume. The AWD did not correlate with the C _stand; therefore, families with high wood density can be selected independent of the C _stand. The C _stand of the best full-sib family, female parent half-sib family, and male parent half-sib family at three sites were 106.1, 84.6, and 93.2 Cton·ha⁻¹, respectively. All these values exceed the mean for the improved Japanese larch, which has a C _stand value of 82.5 Cton·ha⁻¹.     

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MYCELIA IN EUROPEAN LARCH BARK, IN RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANKER

The paper presents fully evidence to support the following conclusions.

1. The living bark of European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) maybe expected to be infected with a microflora which containsboth fungi and bacteria and which may sometimes include Dasyscyphawillkommii (Hart.) Rehm.
2. The necrotic areas which constitutecankers can be found tocontain a similar flora including Cytosporaabietis Sacc., C.curreyi Sacc., and Coniotbyrium fuckelii Sacc.This flora mayinclude D. wilkommii but it is not necessarilythe most abundantnor is its presence necessary for the developmentof larch canker.
3. Inoculation experiments at Mynydd Ddu, wherecanker and die-backof branches is severe, with the above speciesof fungus, showthat inoculations stimulate extensions of deadbark. Under differentsite conditions and in a canker-free plantationat Southmoor,similar inoculations only produced extensionsgreater than thoseobserved in control treatments, where thetrees inoculated hadbeen partially girdled.
4. A mass of myceliumof the usual species inhabiting living larchbark may, undersuitable conditions, have an influence whichfavours cankerextension but some special stimulus, of whichthe conditionof the tree may be an important factor, is neededto enablethem to influence the living bark of the host adversely.Muchmore careful study is needed before conditions which accompanycanker development are accurately known.

     

幼龄材范围的确定及树木生长速率对幼龄材生长量的影响

本文以杉木、日本落叶松的人上林和天然林木材为对象，选择ｙ＝ａ＋ｂｌｎｘ回归模式。利用其管胞特征因子随年轮数的变化，研究划分幼龄材年轮界限的最适因子，并就生长速率对幼龄材生长量的影响进入了探讨。结果表明：杉木和日本落叶松的人工林及天然林木的管胞特征值在径向水平上的变化均遵循ｙ＝ａ＋ｂｌｎｘ模式，尤其管胞长度与年轮数回归的相关系数Ｒ均达０．９８以上；管胞长度与管胞宽度及纤丝用相比，遗传率最大，随年轮数变化的模式最稳定，是划分幼龄材界限的最佳因子，由此得出杉木人工林幼龄材界限年轮为２０－２２（距髓心距离为１２．９－１３．２ｃｍ）、天然林为１６－１８（４．１－４．５ｃｍ），日本落叶松人工林为１９－２３（８．７－１０．５ｃｍ）、天然林为２３－２４（２．９－３．１ｃｍ）；幼龄材生长量与树木生长速率成正比。     

英国西加云杉和落叶松的无性繁殖

本文概述了英国西加云杉和落叶松无性繁殖的历史、研究背景、生产方法、扦插苗的造林表现和大规模应用的发展前景。目前已优化无性繁殖系统的扦插苗生产成本为常规的１／３，且扦插苗不增加造林成本。     

NOTE ON THE FIRST BRITISH OCCURRENCE OF IPS CEMBRAE HEER (COL. SCOLYTIDAE)

During 1955 the larch bark beetle, Ips cembrae Heer, was discoveredin twenty-nine localities in Moray, Nairn, Banff, and Inverness.These are the first British records for this species. It isassumed that I. cembrae entered the country in post-war shipmentsof German timber and has persisted in small numbers until thedamage to woodlands caused by the gale in 1953 provided favourableconditions for its increase. A conspicuous feature of attackis the twig tunnelling of the adult beetles which produces crownpruning. In one locality I. cembrae succeeded in breeding inand killing standing European larch of some 45 years of age.     

The Lintula Larch Forest

The Lintula Larch Forest, also called the Raivola Larch Forest, is one of the most magnificent cultivated forests in northern Europe. It has had a major impact on the cultivation of larch throughout the world, and it became part of the Unesco's World Heritage list in 1991. This article summarizes for the first time to an international audience the establishment, administration and management, stand development and research carried out in Lintula Park. It is based on Russian and Finnish papers and earlier unpublished results. The forest is located 63 km north-west of St Petersburg in the Karelian Isthmus. It was established by order of Peter the Great to supply the Russian fleet with timber for shipbuilding. Ferdinand Gabriel Fockel, a German forest expert, established the oldest stands in 1738–1750 with seed from the Province of Arkhangelsk. Since then the area of the forest has expanded and now the total area of larch stands is 55.9 ha; 23.5 ha of the “old stands” established in 1738–1851 still remain. The Lintula larch stands were famous for their high yield, but part of the reputation was based on small sample plots that were not representative of the stands. However, the high volumes of different tree stands are impressive. For example, in a 255-year-old stand with 339 trees ha^?1 the volume of growing stock was 1284 m³ ha^?1. In small sample plots much higher volumes are found. The average annual growth of the oldest larch stands has never exceeded 6.2–7.2 m³ ha^?1. The volume increment was, however, long-lasting, and annual growth started to decrease only after 148–166 years. Some plots had an increase in yield even at the age of 257 years. The yield of the larches clearly surpassed that of Norway spruce and Scots pine in nearby stands. The Lintula Larch Forest has provided valuable experience on the cultivation of larch. The root system of larch is relatively weak, and it is therefore susceptible to wind damage and rot fungi. An important conclusion drawn from the development of the Lintula Larch Forest is that the cultivation of larch is worthwhile only when grown as pure stands using intensive growing techniques.     

Height growth of young larch (Larix kaempferi) in relation to the frequency of deer browsing damage in Hokkaido, Japan

The effect of browsing frequency by Sika deer (Cervus nippon yezoensis) on the height growth of Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) in Hokkaido, Japan, was analyzed. Tree heights at the time of the census and at the start of the current growing season were determined for 100 trees selected randomly at each site. The tallest shoot on each tree was identified and the number of browsing occurrences on the current-year shoot was determined. Young larches browsed by deer repeatedly develop new shoots during a growing season. Larch is a browsing-tolerant species, and the average height growth of the most heavily browsed trees was >15 cm. Although resprouting partly compensated for decreased height growth caused by browsing, the annual increase in height decreased with increased browsing frequency. Thus, browsing frequency during a growing season best reflects the intensity of browsing damage to larch trees.     

Radial variations of wood properties of an endangered species, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus armandii</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">amamiana</Emphasis>

A dead tree of Pinus armandii Franch. var. amamiana (Koidz.) Hatusima (abbreviated to PAAm) was obtained from a natural habitat on Tanega-shima Island and various properties of its wood were investigated. Grain angle was measured and soft X-ray analysis was undertaken to obtain the density in each annual ring. Unit shrinkage and dynamic properties were measured by shrinkage, bending, and compression tests. Variations of wood properties in the radial direction, relationships of wood properties to density, and annual ring width were examined. Roughly speaking, variations in the radial direction of the grain angle, twist angle by drying, Young’s modulus and strength in static bending, absorbed energy in impact bending, compressive Young’s modulus, compressive strength, and compressive proportional limit corresponded to the variation of annual ring width. As a result, it was determined that if PAAm is afforested artificially for the purposes of lumber production and conservation, the annual rings of logs should not be too widely spaced. Wood properties of PAAm were similar to those of Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii Parl.), which is another representative pine on Tanegashima Island. This study was presented in part at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Hiroshima, August 2007     

The Use of Stem Rings to Determine Annual Height Increments in Norway Spruce

Whorls of branches were found to be unreliable as indicatorsof nodes in Norway spruce (P. abies (L.) Karst.) Nodal diaphragmsin the pith are shown to be very reliable and precise indicatorsof nodes but their use in measuring annual height incrementsis not practicable except on a small scale or on young material. Stem rings on Norway spruce are described and are shown to originateas depressions on the current years' shoots, associated withthe bud scales. They persist on stems for at least twenty-eightyears. They can be used as precise indicators of nodes and offeran easy and reliable method of measuring annual height increments.     

Some Aspects of the Relationships between Growth Vigour, Canker, and Dieback of European Larch

From the detailed sampling of two European larch provenancetrials in Scotland, an increase in canker coincident with outbreaksof epidemic dieback was demonstrated. There was generally lesscankering on unthrifty trees although this was not correlatedwith the severity of dieback. There was a general positive correlationbetween growth vigour, as measured by mean annual radial increment,and incidence of canker healing, and it was shown that cankersare initiated on stems of all ages. Although there was no overallstatistical correlation between growth vigour and subsequentseverity of dying back, the most unthrifty trees were considerablyless affected than the most vigorous. An increase in suitablecanker infection courts as a result of dieback is suggested,and the possible roles of climatic factors, Adelges spp. andviruses in the dieback syndrome compared. It was concluded thatvirus transmission by Adelgids merits further investigation.     

A Reappraisal of Canker and Dieback of European Larch

Evidence from the assessment of two large European larch (Larixdecidua Mill.) provenance experiments replicated on a numberof sites in England, Wales, and Scotland, and from other observations,suggested that: (a) Larch canker was not caused by frost, butwas probably due to primary infection by the fungus Trichoscyphellawillkommii (Hart.) Nannf. (b) Scottish provenances of Europeanlarch were more susceptible to canker and dieback than wereCarpathian provenances, (c) Canker and epidemic dieback of Europeanlarch were unrelated phenomena, although the relative susceptibilityof the provenances examined was similar for both conditions.     

Differences in spectral trajectory with stand volume development between Japanese larch and Japanese oak in Hokkaido,Japan

Our objective was to investigate the differences in the spectral trajectory of the LANDSAT Thematic Mapper with stand volume development between Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) and Japanese oak (Quercus mongolica var. crispula) in the experimental forest of Kyushu University, Hokkaido, Japan. We used nonlinear regression and a categorical variable to investigate the relationship between spectral reflectance factor and stand volume for each forest type. This research showed that the reflectance factor of Japanese larch and Japanese oak reached saturation and that both forest types had different spectral trajectories with stand development. In addition, we found that middle of development stage (stand volume was between 100 and 200 m³/ha) of each forest type had similarity in reflectance factor.