Effects of High Temperature on Key Enzymes Involved in Starch and Protein Formation in Grains of Two Wheat Cultivars

High temperature is a major determinant of grain growth and yield formation in wheat. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of high temperature regimes on the activities of key regulatory enzymes involved in starch and protein accumulation in grains of two winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars Yangmai 9 and Xuzhou 26 with different protein contents. Four day/night temperature regimes of 34 °C/22 °C, 32 °C/24 °C, 26 °C/14 °C and 24 °C/16 °C were established after anthesis, resulting in two daily temperature levels of 28 °C and 20 °C and two diurnal temperature differences of 12 °C and 8 °C. The activities of glutamine synthase (GS) in flag leaves and glutamate pyruvic aminotransferase (GPT), sucrose synthase (SS), soluble starch synthase (SSS) and granule‐bound starch synthase (GBSS) in grains were measured during the periods of grain filling. High temperature reduced both content and yield of starch in grains, while enhanced protein content and reduced protein yield in grains. High temperature significantly enhanced the activities of SS and GBSS on 14 days after anthesis (DAA). High temperature affected SSS slightly in Yangmai 9, but reduced SSS activity markedly in Xuzhou 26 on 14 DAA. However, at the middle and late stages of grain filling, high temperature reduced the activities of SS, GBSS and SSS significantly in the two wheat cultivars. High temperature reduced GPT activity in grains in the two wheat cultivars, but reduced GS activity in flag leaves of Yangmai 9 and enhanced GS activity of Xuzhou 26 on 14 DAA. In addition, under the same high temperature level, SS activity was higher at 34 °C/22 °C, whereas the activities of SSS and GBSS were higher at 32 °C/24 °C. Also, diurnal temperature differences affected GPT and GS activities differently between the two cultivars. Under optimum temperature level, the activities of key enzymes for starch and protein synthesis were higher at 26 °C/14 °C. The activities of SS, SSS and GBSS significantly correlated with starch accumulation in grains, except for GBSS activity to starch content on 14 DAA. GPT activity was positively correlated with protein yield, and GS activity was negatively correlated with protein yield on 14 DAA, while the activities of both GPT and GS were negatively related to protein content in grains.     

Distribution of photoperiod-insensitive alleles Ppd-B1a and Ppd-D1a and their effect on heading time in Japanese wheat cultivars

The genotypes of photoperiod response genes Ppd-B1 and Ppd-D1 in Japanese wheat cultivars were determined by a PCR-based method, and heading times were compared among genotypes. Most of the Japanese wheat cultivars, except those from the Hokkaido region, carried the photoperiod-insensitive allele Ppd-D1a, and heading was accelerated 10.3 days compared with the Ppd-D1b genotype. Early cultivars with Ppd-D1a may have been selected to avoid damage from preharvest rain. In the Hokkaido region, Ppd-D1a frequency was lower and heading date was late regardless of Ppd-D1 genotype, suggesting another genetic mechanism for late heading in Hokkaido cultivars. In this study, only 11 cultivars proved to carry Ppd-B1a, and all of them carried another photoperiod-insensitive allele, Ppd-D1a. The Ppd-B1a/Ppd-D1a genotype headed 6.7 days earlier than the Ppd-B1b/Ppd-D1a genotype, indicating a significant effect of Ppd-B1a in the genetic background with Ppd-D1a. Early-maturity breeding in Japan is believed to be accelerated by the introduction of the Ppd-B1a allele into medium-heading cultivars carrying Ppd-D1a. Pedigree analysis showed that Ppd-B1a in three extra-early commercial cultivars was inherited from ‘Shiroboro 21’ by early-heading Chugoku lines bred at the Chugoku Agriculture Experimental Station.     

Differential contribution of two Ppd-1 homoeoalleles to early-flowering phenotype in Nepalese and Japanese varieties of common wheat

Wheat landraces carry abundant genetic variation in heading and flowering times. Here, we studied flowering-related traits of two Nepalese varieties, KU-4770 and KU-180 and a Japanese wheat cultivar, Shiroganekomugi (SGK). These three wheat varieties showed similar flowering time in a common garden experiment. In total, five significant quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for three examined traits, the heading, flowering and maturation times, were detected using an F₂ population of SGK/KU-4770. The QTLs were found at the Ppd-1 loci on chromosomes 2B and 2D and the 2B QTL was also confirmed in another F₂ population of SGK/KU-180. The Ppd-D1 allele from SGK and the Ppd-B1 alleles from the two Nepalese varieties might be causal for early-flowering phenotype. The SGK Ppd-D1 allele contained a 2-kb deletion in the 5′ upstream region, indicating a photoperiod-insensitive Ppd-D1a allele. Real-time PCR analysis estimating the Ppd-B1 copy number revealed that the two Nepalese varieties included two intact Ppd-B1 copies, putatively resulting in photoperiod insensitivity and an early-flowering phenotype. The two photoperiod-insensitive Ppd-1 homoeoalleles could independently contribute to segregation of early-flowering individuals in the two F₂ populations. Therefore, wheat landraces are genetic resources for discovery of alleles useful for improving wheat heading or flowering times.     

Development of gene-tagged markers for quantitative trait loci underlying rice yield components

Higher yields of rice have always been a predominant goal in rice breeding techniques. However, the inheritances of rice yield and its components are still unknown, and no information regarding suitable alleles can be directly provided for improving the rice yield level until three major quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been cloned and functionally characterized. These QTLs contain Gn1a for grain number per panicle and GS3 and GW2 for grain weight. It has been proven that these three genes show a potential in improving the rice yield level. However, the distribution of suitable alleles on these three loci in rice cultivars and germ plasm are yet to be elucidated, this retards the progress of the utilization of suitable alleles in rice breeding techniques to produce higher yields. In the present study, we developed a set of gene-tagged markers based on the gene mutation sites Gn1a-M1 and Gn1a-M2 for Gn1a, GW2-HapI for GW2, and GS3-PstI for GS3. The results demonstrated that these STS markers could clearly differentiate between the different alleles at each gene locus. A survey of the allele distributions of the abovementioned three genes was performed with 156 cultivars. It was observed that the 5150-Gn1a allele was absent on the Gn1a locus and only two type alleles (Ha-Gn1a and Ko-Gn1a) were present, of which 54.3% indica and 21.5% japonica cultivars contained the Ha-Gn1a allele. Two alleles (MH-GS3 and ZS-GS3) were detected on the GS3 locus, and 48.6% indica and 9.9% japonica cultivars harbored the suitable allele MH-GS3. Further, all the cultivars contained the FA-GW2 allele on GW2, whereas the WY-GW2 allele was not found. These results further suggested that some of the alleles residing in the indica subspecies have introgressed into the japonica group with a very low frequency. The gene-tagged markers developed in the present study can be directly used as a tool for marker-aided selection (MAS) in rice breeding techniques to produce higher yields. Chang-Jie Yan and Song Yan contributed equally to this work.     

A new gene controlling the flowering response to photoperiod in wheat

A novel photoperiod response gene, designated Ppd-B2, was mapped to wheat chromosome arm 7BS, using a set of lines carrying various segments of 7BS from the early flowering breeding line ‘F26-70 7B’ in a background of the variety ‘Favorit’. The gene was 4.4 cM distal of the microsatellite locus Xgwm0537 and 20.7 cM proximal to Xgwm0255. In contrast to the well-characterized Ppd-1 genes, which require short days for expression, Ppd-B2 was detected when plants were exposed to a long photoperiod. The accelerated flowering produced by Ppd-B2 was correlated with increased grain protein content.     

Daylength,Temperature and Solar Radiation Effects on the Phenology and Yield Formation of Spring Durum Wheat

Future food security will depend on crop adaptation to changing environments. We studied the limitations imposed by daylength, temperature and solar radiation on wheat yield in eight field experiments conducted at contrasting northern latitudes and involving 42 adapted spring durum wheat genotypes of divergent phenology, and reduced or without photoperiod sensitivity. Air temperatures averaged from sowing to anthesis (SA) increased from northern to southern sites, while daylength and minimum temperatures from anthesis to maturity (grain filling, GF) followed the opposite trend, due to differences in the latitude of sites. The site effect explained 96 % of the variation in the number of days SA, which was much smaller in southern sites. Average minimum daily temperatures above 6.9 °C before anthesis and below 10.8 °C during GF accompanied by photoperiods during GF of less than 14.2 h resulted in less than 14 000 kernels m^?2, which was the threshold below which kernel number limited yield. Radiation during GF lower than 1.8 kJ kernel^?1 day^?1 limited kernel weight, which was then a constraint to the achievement of yield potential.     

Leaf Area Duration of Oat at High Latitudes

Contribution of leaf area duration (LAD) to grain yield during the short growing season characteristic of northern latitudes may differ from the marked impact it has at lower latitudes. Three experiments (exps) were carried out at Viikki Experimental Farm, University of Helsinki, Finland (60° 13′N) to compare associations between main shoot and tiller LAD with grain yield, yield components and morpho-physiological traits characterizing plant stand structure. This was done using correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) for data from trials conducted during 1993–1995. Exp I included three N fertilizer rates (80, 120, 160 kg N ha^?1), three seeding rates (250, 500, and 750 seeds m^?2), and tall, moderate, semi-dwarf, and dwarf oat lines. Exp II incorporated two N fertilizer rates (80 and 120 kg ha^?1), three seeding rates (400, 600, and 800 seeds m^?2), and naked and hulled oat lines, and exp III, foliar applications of plant growth regulators [control, chlormequat chloride (CCC), and ethephon], and dwarf, naked, and conventional oat lines. LAD for main shoots and tillers [calculated as ∫ LAI d T, where T is cumulated degree days from seedling emergence to yellow ripening (dd °C)] and 12 morpho-physiological traits were measured. Oat was not able to benefit from high main shoot LAD if drought occurred at grain-fill, but in the absence of severe drought or if it occurred at pre-anthesis, high LAD favoured yield formation. Tiller LAD had a negative impact, if any, on grain yield in cases of an inverse relationship between tiller LAD and yield components on main shoots was recorded. Use of low seeding rates resulted in improved ability of total LAD to contribute to dry-matter production, but was not associated with grain yield. Low seeding rates enhanced formation of high tiller LAD, which was not able to compensate for grain yield reduction caused by fewer main shoots. Foliar application of CCC and ethephon tended to increase the proportion of LAD production by tillers at the expense of grain yield, which can be attributed to lower post-anthesis precipitation. Oat types differed in main shoot and tiller LAD. Disadvantageous characteristics of naked oat, such as low single groat weight, were not associated with insufficient main shoot LAD. High tiller LAD in naked lines and the Minnesota-adapted dwarf line that was not associated with high tiller grain yield in naked lines, in particular, indicates that tiller growth was enhanced at the expense of grain yield production. Application of N fertilizer at various rates did not have any effect on LAD.     

水稻籽粒氮代谢几个关键酶对花后高温胁迫的响应及其与贮藏蛋白积累关系

以早籼水稻嘉935和嘉353为材料,利用人工气候箱设高温(32℃)和适温(22℃)处理,探讨了高温对水稻籽粒氮代谢关键酶活性的影响及其与籽粒粗蛋白含量和各种氨基酸组成间的关系,并结合荧光定量PCR对水稻籽粒谷氨酰胺合成酶(GS) 2个同工型基因的表达及其温度响应进行了检测分析。结果表明,花后高温处理对谷草转氨酶(GOT)和谷丙转氨酶(GPT)的影响基本一致,均表现灌浆前期升高、后期下降的趋势,但花后高温处理下水稻籽粒中粗蛋白总量和各类氨基酸含量的增加,并不一定是其籽粒氮素物质的转运能力和蛋白质合成能力的增强所致;谷氨酰胺合成酶(GS)在高温处理下的生理活性普遍高于其相应时期的低温处理,其中,GS2是GS基因在水稻胚乳中高表达的一种同工型,在水稻灌浆后期的表达量甚至超过GS1,高温胁迫处理会通过改变GS1和GS2基因在籽粒中的转录水平,从而对水稻籽粒灌浆中后期的GS活性产生调控。     

Effect of N and CO2 supply on source size per grain at anthesis and its relationship with grain growth in wheat

Rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([eCO₂]) increases the yield of wheat mainly by increasing grain number, but effects on single grain weight are variable. It is discussed whether single grain growth is limited by the sink or the source size under a non-stress environment. This study explores the effect of e[CO₂] combined with varying N supply on the source and sink size during grain filling. Source size was defined as the amount of stem reserves per grain (SRG) and the proportion of incident radiation intercepted by the green canopy per grain (f_IRG) at anthesis. Data from a 2-year free-air CO₂ enrichment experiment with wheat with three N levels (on average 38 [Nd], 190 [Nad] and 320 kg N ha⁻¹ [Nex]) and two CO₂ levels (393 and 600 ppm) on SRG, f_IRG and grain filling rate (GFR) and duration (GFD) were evaluated. SRG ranged from 2.5 to 12.9 mg and f_IRG from 4.0 × 0.001% to 6.8 x 0.001%. Rising N supply or e[CO₂] decreased SRG and f_IRG via their increases in grain number. Accordingly, there was a negative linear relationship between grain number and SRG (r² ≥ 0.84) or f_IRG (r² ≥ 0.97). Increasing N supply decreased GFR, but increased GFD, and GFR was increased by e[CO₂] under Nad and Nex. For GFR and final grain weight, there was a strong positive (r² ≥ 0.85), and for GFD, a strong negative linear relationship (r² ≥ 0.76) with f_IRG under Nad and Nex. Under these N levels, f_IRG supplied the largest share (>86%) for grain growth and thus single grain growth was possibly source limited under Nad and Nex. Under high grain number such as under Nex and e[CO₂], there might be a risk for low final grain weight due to the low SRG that is insufficient for buffering assimilate shortage under unfavourable environmental conditions in early grain filling.     

Remobilization of Nitrogen and Carbohydrate from Stems of Bread Wheat in Response to Heat Stress during Grain Filling

When wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is grown under heat-stress conditions during grain filling, preanthesis stored total non-structural carbohydrates (TNC) and nitrogen (N) could serve as alternative source of assimilates. This study was performed to evaluate wheat genotypes for their ability to accumulate and remobilize TNC and N stored in their stem to support grain filling under heat stress. Eighteen genotypes were used for N remobilization study while nine of them were used for TNC remobilization study. They were grown in pots and placed in a vinyl house with the maximum temperature kept below 30 °C. Five days after anthesis (5DAA), half of the pots were taken to phytotrons where temperature was gradually increased and the maximum was set at 38 °C. Grain yield and grain weight decreased by about 35 % under heat stress. Significant differences were found among genotypes in percentage reduction in grain yield, grain weight, grain filling duration and harvest index because of heat stress. The N and TNC concentrations of the stem at 5DAA were significantly different among genotypes. Heat stress significantly reduced the N remobilization efficiency of most of genotypes. However, heat stress significantly increased TNC remobilization efficiency and significant variation were observed among genotypes. N remobilization efficiency across treatments significantly correlated with grain yield, grain weight, harvest index and grain filling duration. TNC at 5DAA negatively correlated with N at 5DAA and harvest index, but the TNC remobilization efficiency under heat stress positively correlated with mainstem grain yield, grain weight and harvest index. The rate of chlorophyll loss from flag leaf positively correlated with N and TNC remobilization efficiencies under heat stress suggesting a link between leaf senescence and remobilization efficiency. The results indicate that heat stress negatively affected grain yield, its components and N remobilization while it increased TNC remobilization because of the increasing demand for resources.     

四川盆地小麦籽粒的灌浆特性

四川盆地小麦灌浆期长,粒重优势明显,但易受环境影响。2010-2011和2011-2012年连续2个小麦生长季,选用10个品种在3个地点进行灌浆特性研究,以揭示该区域小麦灌浆参数的基因型差异及环境效应。2年平均粒重48.25 g,灌浆分为渐增期(T₁)、快增期(T₂)和缓增期(T₃) 3个阶段,各阶段持续时间为T₃ (16.30 d)>T₁ (13.41 d)>T₂ (12.98 d),其灌浆速率分别为0.618、0.772和2.205 mg grain^-1 d^-1。3个阶段的干物质积累贡献率依次为21.21% (T₁)、58.27% (T₂)和20.53% (T₃),可见快增期结束时可以积累80%左右的干物质量。基因型、地点和年份对除粒重以外的所有灌浆参数均有显著影响,以年份的效应最大。同一年中,粒重、最大灌浆速率、平均灌浆速率、缓增期灌浆速率、渐增期灌浆速率和快增期灌浆速率主要受基因型的影响,而其他参数则以地点效应大于基因型效应。粒重与平均灌浆速率、最大灌浆速率、快增期灌浆速率和缓增期灌浆速率呈极显著正相关。10个参试品种中,川麦42、川育23和川麦56具开花期早、灌浆速率高、灌浆时间长、粒重大等特征。     

Vernalization gene combination to maximize grain yield in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in diverse environments

The major vernalisation genes of VRN1 are well understood at the molecular level. However, their quantitative contributions to flowering time and grain yield related traits are not clear. In this study, we used a double haploid population (225 lines) of Westonia × Kauz in which the Vrn-A1a (Westonia), Vrn-B1a (Westonia) and Vrn-D1a (Kauz) were segregating, and a high resolution genetic map of 1,159 loci, to determine the quantitative contributions of Vrn-A1a, Vrn-B1a and Vrn-D1a for the days to anthesis and grain yield related traits in diverse environments. The major quantitative trait loci (QTL) of spikelet number per spike and days to anthesis were contributed by the winter alleles of VRN1. The QTL of the time of grain filling were contributed by the spring alleles of VRN1. The wild genotype (vrn-A1vrn-B1vrn-D1) showed the latest flowering, the highest spikelet number per spike, lowest peduncle proportion and thousand grain weight in three environmental analyses, and the largest spikelet number per spike, which resulted in high kernel number per spike (KN) and grain weight (GW) in well-watered environments. One QTL of KN was located on 5B, contributed by winter allele of vrn-B1 in three environmental analyses, and one GW QTL was detected on 5A, contributed by the spring allele of Vrn-A1a in a drought environment. The results indicated that the genotype Vrn-A1avrn-B1Vrn-D1a would shorten the time to anthesis and give high GW and KN in drought environments. The early anthesis associated phenotype, peduncle proportion would provide an indicator in breeding programs.     

The effect of VRN1 genes on important agronomic traits in high‐yielding Canadian soft white spring wheat

For reproductive success, flowering time must synchronize with favourable environmental conditions. Vernalization genes play a major role in accelerating or delaying the time to flowering. We studied how different vernalization (VRN1) gene combinations alter days to flowering and maturity and consequently the effect on grain yield and other agronomic traits. The study focussed on the effect of the VRN1 gene series (Vrn‐A1, Vrn‐B1 and Vrn‐D1) and their combinations. The Vrn gene group Vrn‐A1a, Vrn‐B1, vrn‐D1 was the earliest to flower and mature, while Vrn‐A1b, Vrn‐B1, vrn‐D1 was the latest to flower. Spring wheat lines with vrn‐A1, Vrn‐B1, Vrn‐D1 were the highest yielding and matured at a similar time as those having vernalization genes Vrn‐A1a, Vrn‐B1 and Vrn‐D1. The findings of this study suggest that the presence of Vrn‐D1 has a direct or indirect role in producing higher grain yield. We therefore suggest the introduction of Vrn‐D1 allele into higher‐yielding classes within Canadian spring wheat germplasm.     

Relationships between Yield and Quality Parameters of Malting Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Phenological and Meteorological Data

In this study, phenological and meteorological data have been used to interpret variations in a time series of regional average yields and quality parameters of malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L). The analyses were focused mainly on the grain filling period. Duration and occurrence of this development stage showed remarkable differences from year to year, as heading varied over more than four weeks and yellow ripeness over two weeks in the investigation period from 1974 to 1996. Yields above average were achieved only in years when grain filling duration exceeded 42 d. Protein concentrations below 10.5 % and grading percentages over 90 % required at least 44 d of grain filling. Temperature had the strongest influence on the length of grain filling, even though the calculated Growing Degree Days (base temperature 3 °C) were not absolutely constant. Mean daily temperature and relative air humidity were the best estimators with respect to grain yield. An optimum temperature range was found between 14 and 18 °C. Assuming a linear relationship, yield reductions between 4.1 and 5.7 % have been calculated for every 1 °C increase of the mean daily temperature. Relative air humidity was the best single estimator for grain protein concentration. The results of this study suggest that relative humidity during grain filling can be a more suitable parameter to describe drought stress effects than precipitation amounts from heading to yellow ripeness or from January 1 to yellow ripeness.     

Associations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">NAM</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">A1</Emphasis> alleles with the onset of senescence and nitrogen use efficiency under Western Australian conditions

Wheat grain yield and protein content are significantly influenced by the onset of senescence and the duration of the grain filling phase. The onset of senescence also affects Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) through interacting pathways involving N accumulation and translocation of N into the grains. The objective of this study was to relate variation in NUE and its components with two groups of the NAM-A1 gene alleles; (i) early onset of senescence in cultivars carrying the NAM-A1a allele, (ii) delayed onset of senescence in cultivars carrying the Non-NAM-A1a allele (b, c, d) in wheat cultivars grown under Western Australia conditions. A field trial was carried out over two seasons examining 19 cultivars under different N rates and time of N application. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was utilized to determine the onset of senescence after anthesis. The early onset of senescence results in high grain yield, harvest index, and NUE due to improvements in the N utilization ability. Accelerating the onset of senescence results in a short grain filling period leading to grain maturity before the onset of unfavourable summer conditions. The function of alleles of NAM-A1 gene in controlling senescence hence the NUE is highly regulated by environmental conditions. This study concluded that the function of NAM-A1a allele induces the onset of senescence with a positive effect on the NUE and its components under Western Australian conditions.     

Yield, Grain Weight and Height Relationships in Two Random Samples of Early Semi-Dwarf Genotypes of Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

The objective of this work is to study the association between the genotypic differences in mean grain weight and grain yield, the relationship of yield and grain weight with culm length, and the differences between the effects of the Rht1 and Rht2 dwarfing alleles on these characters. Yield, grain weight, grains m^-2 and culm length were evaluated in two random samples of 19 semi-dwarf early lines, selected in F₅ and tested in F₂, from two different crosses between cultivars differing in the Rht allele controlling their semi-dwarf ness. The lines of each cross were tested in 4-replicated field trials at two different sites. Phenotypic, genotypic, partial and multiple correlations as well as hertability estimates were computed. In each cross the lines differed significantly in their mean values of all the characters tested. In both crosses there was no apparent association between grain weight and grain yield. It therefore seems that in wheat of the type investigated in this study, grain yield and grain weight are independent controlled and that high grain yield is not restricted to any particular range of mean grain weight. A rather high positive correlation between culm length and grain weight was found in one cross but not in the other indicating the dependence of this relationship on the genetic background. In both crosses no significant differences were found between the performance of the lines carrying the Rht1 dwarfing allele and those carrying the Rht2 allele.     

Relative performance of Canadian spring wheat cultivars under organic and conventional field conditions

Producing higher yields under organic conditions is generally hampered by weeds and lesser nutrient supply. In wheat certain adaptive traits like early season vigour, taller plants, and shorter life cycle have been reported to help plants compete with weeds and produce satisfactory yields. In this experiment we tested the hypothesis ‘that early flowering and maturity conferred by insensitive vernalization alleles Vrn-A1a and/or Vrn-B1 has a yield advantage under organic conditions’ in Canadian spring wheat germplasm. We genotyped 32 cultivars for their vernalization gene composition (Vrn-A1a, Vrn-B1 and Vrn-D1) and studied these cultivars in organic and conventional management systems. We found 88 % of the cultivars possessed vernalization (Vrn) insensitive allele Vrn-A1a either alone or in combination with Vrn-B1. There were no differential affects between the cultivars having insensitive Vrn allele at either single locus (Vrn-A1a) or two (Vrn-A1a, Vrn-B1) under organic and conventional field conditions; except for days to maturity, where cultivars having only Vrn-A1a allele matured earlier. This earlier maturity did not translate to any yield advantage under organic field conditions. Overall, the cultivars grown under organic conditions were earlier flowering, lower yielding with lower test weight compared to the conventional management system. Significant cultivar × environment interactions were found for grain yield, grain protein content and grain fill rate. For grain protein content, cross-over interactions of the cultivars between the management systems were observed. Three cultivars (Marquis, Unity and Minnedosa) exhibited minimal comparative loss in grain yield and grain protein content under organic field conditions, and hence could potentially serve as parents for organic wheat breeding programs.     

Traits in Spring Wheat Cultivars Associated with Yield Loss Caused by a Heat Stress Episode after Anthesis

Heat stress resulting from climate change and more frequent weather extremes is expected to negatively affect wheat yield. We evaluated the response of different spring wheat cultivars to a post‐anthesis high temperature episode and studied the relationship between different traits associated with heat tolerance. Fifteen spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars were grown in pots under semifield conditions, and heat stress (35/26 °C) and control treatments (20/12 °C) were applied in growth chambers for 5 days starting 14 days after flowering. The heat stress treatment reduced final yield in all cultivars. Significant variation was observed among cultivars in the reduction in average grain weight and grain dry matter yield under heat stress (up to 36 % and 45 %, respectively). The duration of the grain‐filling period was reduced by 3–12 days by the heat treatment. The reduction in the grain‐filling period was negatively correlated with grain nitrogen yield (r = ?0.60). A positive correlation (r = 0.73) was found between the treatment effect on green leaf area (GLA) and the reduction in yield resulting from heat stress. The amount of stem water‐soluble carbohydrates (WSC) was not related to treatment effects on grain yield or grain weight. However, the treatment effect on stem WSC remobilization was negatively correlated with reduction in grain‐filling duration due to heat stress (r = ?0.74) and positively with treatment effect on grain N yield (r = 0.52). The results suggest that the effect of the heat treatment on GLA was the trait most associated with yield reduction in all cultivars. These findings suggest the importance of ‘stay green’‐associated traits in plant breeding as well as the need for better modelling of GLA in crop models, especially with respect to brief heat episodes during grain filling. There is in particular a need to model how heat and other stresses, including interacting effects of heat and drought, affect duration of GLA after flowering and how this affects source–sink relations during grain filling.     

Identification and molecular mapping of Flowering Date1 (FD1), a major photoperiod insensitivity gene in the adzuki bean (Vigna angularis)

The induction of flowering under long‐day conditions is an important adaptation by short‐day plants, such as adzuki beans (Vigna angularis), to high‐latitude environments. This study clarified the genetic control underlying the long‐day insensitivity of adzuki bean cultivar ‘Shumari’. ‘Shumari’ was found to be insensitive to a 16‐h day, whereas landrace Acc2265 was highly sensitive. When grown under natural long‐day conditions at Obihiro (42°9′N), Acc2265 initiated flowering at least 80 days after ‘Shumari’. When 86 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from crosses between ‘Shumari’ and Acc2265 were grown under these conditions, their flowering dates ranged from the middle of July to the end of October. The distinct bimodal distribution in the RIL population was due to a single major gene, designated Flowering Date1 (FD1). Molecular mapping showed that FD1 was located between the SSR markers Az02‐37M3 and Az02‐40M9, at distances of 6 and 10.4 cM, respectively, on linkage group 2. RILs carrying FD1^S lacked long‐day sensitivity, whereas RILs carrying FD1^A were sensitive to long‐day conditions, confirming that FD1 controls long‐day sensitivity.