Distribution and tensile strength of Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) roots growing on slopes of Caspian Forests, Iran

Biomechanical characteristics of the root system of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) were assessed by measuring Root Area Ratio (RAR) values and tensile strength of root specimens of eight hornbeam trees growing on hilly terrain of Northern Iran. RAR values of the roots were obtained using profile trenching method at soil depth of the top 0.1 m. In total 123 root specimens were analyzed for tensile strength. Results indicate that in general, RAR decreases with depth, following a power function. The RAR values in up and down slopes have no significant statistical differences. In most cases, the maximum RAR values were located in soil depth of the top 0.1 m, with maximum rooting depth at about 0.75 m. The minimum and maximum RAR values along the profiles were 0.004% and 6.431% for down slope and 0.004% and 3.995% for up slope, respectively. The number of roots in the up and down slope trenches was not significantly different. In the same manner as for RAR, number of roots distributing with depth was satisfactorily approximated a power function. The penetration depths of above 90 percent of the roots were at soil depths of 50 cm and 60 cm for up and down slopes, respectively. Results of Spearman’s bivariate correlation showed no significant correlation between the RAR value with tree diameter and gradient of slope and number of roots. The mean value of root tensile strength was 31.51 ± 1.05 MPa and root tensile strength decreased with the increase in root diameter, following a power law equation. Using ANCOVA, we found intraspecies variation of tensile strength. Biography: Ehsan Abdi (1978– ), Male, Ph.D candidate, in the Department of Forestry, University of Tehran, Karaj 31585-3314, Iran.     

A comparison of root distribution of three hardwood species grown on a hillside in the Caspian forest,Iran

Slope is a complex environmental factor that can subject plants to a number of mechanical stresses. The anchorage of roots and improvement of slope stability mainly depend on specific properties of root systems, such as root distribution. In the present study, 24 trees (from three species) growing on gentle slopes (10–20°) were randomly chosen for root distribution analysis. The profile trenching method was used to obtain root characteristics. The findings indicated that root area ratio (RAR) decreased with depth and that maximum RAR values were observed in the upper layers; RAR values were between 0.0004% and 6.6444%. Average RAR values were not statistically different in upslope and downslope layers except in one case. The dot grid method (100 × 150 mm) usually overestimated the RAR values. The amount of roots decreased with depth following a power law. About 50% and 90% of roots were located in the first 30 and 60 cm depths, respectively. Results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed a significant effect of diameter at breast height (DBH) on total RAR but not on the total number of roots. About 70% of roots had diameter of less than 10 mm. Spearman’s correlation showed significant negative correlation between the total number of roots and the amount of N, P, and K elements, and a positive correlation between DBH and RAR. The results serve to develop understanding of the biotechnical characteristics of root systems of Caspian species.     

宿迁市公路边坡绿化常见草本植物根系固土特性研究

本文以江苏省宿迁市绿化常用草本植物高羊茅为研究对象,通过植物学和材料力学的研究方法,对高羊茅根系的土体分布特征和单根抗拉力学特性进行研究分析。结果显示:在0~40 cm土层中,高羊茅直径≤1.0 mm的根系密度大于直径>1.0 mm的根系,且其生物量随土层深度的增加而减少;高羊茅根系的单根抗拉力与根系直径之间呈正相关关系,抗拉强度与直径之间呈负相关关系。研究表明高羊茅根系具有较强的固土护坡能力,可以有效增强土体稳定性,在减缓公路土石边坡水土流失方面发挥较大作用。     

孟加拉国丘陵地带桔园和灌木林地土壤物理性质的比较评价

The physical properties of soil on two hill slopes of 35% and 55% in orange orchard cultivated by the Mro tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts （CHTs） were evaluated and compared with those of bushy hill forests. Soil samples were collected from three different depths （0-5 cm, 5-15 cm and 15-30 cm）, digging three profiles in each land use for determining moisture content, organic matter content and particle density. Maximum water holding capacity, field capacity, dry and moist bulk density and porosity were determined only for the surface soils. Moisture content at all the soil depths was significantly higher （p≤ 0.05） in orange orchard than in forest on both the slopes. Orange orchard contained lower mean soil organic matter than forest on 55% slope, while it contained higher values on 35% slope compared to forest. The highest value of the above two properties was found at surface soil in both the land uses on both the slopes, decreasing with the increase of soil depth. On both the slopes maximum water holding capacity and porosity of surface soil and particle density at all soil depths were lower in orange orchard compared to those in forest. Field capacity values of surface soil did not show consistency in trend for the differences between the two land uses on both the slopes. Bulk density value of moist and dry surface soil was higher in orange orchard than in forest on both the hill slopes.     

Bamboo hedgerow systems in Kerala, India: Root distribution and competition with trees for phosphorus

In a field study on bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.) hedgerow systems of Kerala, we tested the following three hypotheses: (1) Effective root foraging space is a function of crown spread, (2) Proximity of trees depress lateral spread of roots in mixed species systems and (3) The closer the trees are located the greater will be the subsoil root activity which in turn facilitates active absorption of nutrients from deeper layers of the soil profile. Root distribution of boundary planted bamboo and root competition with associated trees in two binary mixtures, teak (Tectona grandis)-bamboo and Malabar white pine (Vateria indica)-bamboo, were evaluated using modified logarithmic spiral trenching and ³²P soil injection techniques respectively. Excavation studies indicate that rooting intensity declined linearly with increasing lateral distance. Larger clumps manifested wider foraging zones. Eighty three per cent of the large clumps (>4.0 m dia.) extended roots beyond 8 m while only 33% of the small (<2.5 m dia.) clumps extended roots up to 8 m. Highest root counts were found in the 10–20 cm layer with nearly 30% of total roots. Although nearness of bamboo clumps depressed root activity of teak and Vateria in the surface layers of the soil profile, root activity in the deeper layers was stimulated. ³²P recovery was higher when applied at 50-cm depth than at 25-cm depth implying the safety net role of tree roots for leached down nutrients. Inter specific root competition can be regulated by planting crops 8–9 m away from the bamboo clumps and/or by canopy reduction treatments. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

毛白杨农田防护林带细根分布特征

研究了无断根沟的17 a生一路双行毛白杨农田防护林的细根特征。结果表明,在距林带5.0m范围和100 cm深农田内的单位土体细根特征值为:根重92.20g/m3,根长641.01m/m3,根表面积1.058 8m2/m3,根体积103.7 cm3/m3,根尖数301 481个/m3。农田内的各细根特征值都随距林带的距离的增加而降低,基本上随着土壤深度先增加后降低,较高值出现在距林带1.5m范围内的20~40 cm或40~60 cm土层,在1.5m到3.0m的区间迅速或明显降低,在3.0m或5.0m以外则缓慢降低并且细根特征的最大值上升到10~20 cm土层。由此可见,根系胁地最强的范围应在距林带3m以内。     

黄土高原丘陵区不同立地条件下柠条根系研究

对黄土高原丘陵区不同立地条件下3年生柠条的根系作了初步研究,结果表明:柠条侧根发生的主要部位在距地表0～20 cm的土层中,除在阳坡、半阳坡分布的植株外,其它的在50 cm以下没有侧根发生,侧根总数以阳坡最多,半阴坡最少;不同立地下根系生物量的垂直分布,均表现为从土壤表层到深层逐次递减;在各土层中,0～60cm土层中分布的根系生物量所占的比重最大,超过了总量的80%.不同立地条件下单株根系生物量以阳坡最大,为66.63 g,阴坡最低,仅为6.69 g.不同立地条件下柠条的地上部分差异显著,阳坡、半阳坡的株高、生物量等都高于阴坡和半阴坡的.柠条在幼龄期适宜生长的立地类型为阳坡和半阳坡.     

高速公路生态边坡灌木根系垂直分布特征

选择高速公路生态边坡8种灌木根系,从根长、根量、根系削弱系数3个参数对其根系垂直分布特征进行研究,结果表明根系垂直分布大体呈现出由土壤表层至深层逐渐下降的趋势。但不同灌木根长、根量和根系削弱系数均在不同径级、不同土层中存在着较为明显的垂直分布差异。     

Studies on root distribution of five multipurpose tree species in Doon Valley,India

Observations on the growth performance, rooting behaviour and distribution of fine roots of five tree species viz., Bauhinia purpurea, Grewia optiva, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Leucaena leucocephala and Ougeinia oojeinensis (Family: Papilionaceae) are being presented here. Roots were exposed at the time of planting, 6 months, 16 months, and 28 months after planting. Total root weight and root volume were highest in Eucalyptus tereticornis and lowest in Bauhinia purpurea. Major part of the root system confined within 90–120 cm soil depth in case of Bauhinia purpurea, Grewia optiva and Leucaena leucocephala but Eucalyptus tereticornis and Ougeinia oojeinensis strike their roots to deeper depths. Bauhinia purpurea had its roots evenly distributed down to 120 cm. In general, the vertical distribution of fine roots (< 2 mm in diameter) of the five species indicate that more the depth, fewer the number of roots. The observations on soil binding capacity, indicated that Ougeinia oojeinensis had the maximum and Eucalyptus tereticornis had the minimum binding value. Due to leaf shading and other litter fall significant increase of nutrient components in soils under the tree canopies has been observed. The study indicates that bulk of the roots of the five tree species are found near the surface, but observation on soil moisture and nutrient content does not indicate variation under the tree canopies and in open, hence there may not be root competition in initial years of plantation.Authorised for publication by the Institute as contribution No.3311/239/89.     

潞安矿区煤矸石山植被根系的土壤抗冲性研究

在山西潞安矿区王庄煤矿北矸石山进行了土壤抗冲性试验,对矸石山坡面植物根系的土壤抗冲性进行了研究.研究表明:(1)根系长度随根系径级的增大而不断减小,表明土壤中以小径级根系为主,且不同径级根系在土壤中的分布存在较大的空间变异性;根系生物量随根系径级的增大总体上呈下降趋势,即矿区坡面土壤中小径级根系分布较大根系多;(2)根...     

Variation in sugar maple root respiration with root diameter and soil depth

Root respiration may account for as much as 60% of total soil respiration. Therefore, factors that regulate the metabolic activity of roots and associated microbes are an important component of terrestrial carbon budgets. Root systems are often sampled by diameter and depth classes to enable researchers to process samples in a systematic and timely fashion. We recently discovered that small, lateral roots at the distal end of the root system have much greater tissue N concentrations than larger roots, and this led to the hypothesis that the smallest roots have significantly higher rates of respiration than larger roots. This study was designed to determine if root respiration is related to root diameter or the location of roots in the soil profile. We examined relationships among root respiration rates and N concentration in four diameter classes from three soil depths in two sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) forests in Michigan. Root respiration declined as root diameter increased and was lower at deeper soil depths than at the soil surface. Surface roots (0-10 cm depth) respired at rates up to 40% greater than deeper roots, and respiration rates for roots < 0.5 mm in diameter were 2.4 to 3.4 times higher than those for roots in larger diameter classes. Root N concentration explained 70% of the observed variation in respiration across sites and size and depth classes. Differences in respiration among root diameter classes and soil depths appeared to be consistent with hypothesized effects of variation in root function on metabolic activity. Among roots, very fine roots in zones of high nutrient availability had the highest respiration rates. Large roots and roots from depths of low nutrient availability had low respiration rates consistent with structural and transport functions rather than with active nutrient uptake and assimilation. These results suggest that broadly defined root classes, e.g., fine roots are equivalent to all roots < 2.0 mm in diameter, do not accurately reflect the functional categories typically associated with fine roots. Tissue N concentration or N content (mass x concentration N) may be a better indicator of root function than root diameter.     

Spatial distribution of Eucalyptus roots in a deep sandy soil in the Congo: relationships with the ability of the stand to take up water and nutrients

Spatial statistical analyses were performed to describe root distribution and changes in soil strength in a mature clonal plantation of Eucalyptus spp. in the Congo. The objective was to analyze spatial variability in root distribution. Relationships between root distribution, soil strength and the water and nutrient uptake by the stand were also investigated. We studied three, 2.35-m-wide, vertical soil profiles perpendicular to the planting row and at various distances from a representative tree. The soil profiles were divided into 25-cm2 grid cells and the number of roots in each of three diameter classes counted in each grid cell. Two profiles were 2-m deep and the third profile was 5-m deep. There was both vertical and horizontal anisotropy in the distribution of fine roots in the three profiles, with root density decreasing sharply with depth and increasing with distance from the stump. Roots were present in areas with high soil strength values (> 6,000 kPa). There was a close relationship between soil water content and soil strength in this sandy soil. Soil strength increased during the dry season mainly because of water uptake by fine roots. There were large areas with low root density, even in the topsoil. Below a depth of 3 m, fine roots were spatially concentrated and most of the soil volume was not explored by roots. This suggests the presence of drainage channels, resulting from the severe hydrophobicity of the upper soil.     

水曲柳人工林细根季节动态及其影响因素

2002年5-10月,采用连续钻取土芯法对帽儿山实验林场的水曲柳人工林细根(直径＜1 mm)生物量、比根长(SRL)和根长密度(RLD)的季节动态,以及它们与土壤N的有效性、土壤10 cm深处月均温度和含水量的关系进行研究.结果表明:水曲柳细根生物量在春季和秋季分别具有1个明显的高峰,但比根长和根长密度只有1个高峰.在春季和夏季,比根长和根长密度较高,显示细根直径较小,而秋季,这2个参数显著下降,表明细根直径次生增厚或组织密度增加.细根的季节变化与土壤N的有效性、土壤温度和土壤含水量有重要关系.其中细根生物量与土壤铵态氮含量显著相关;硝态氮含量、10 cm深处土壤的温度和土壤含水量与细根的生物量、比根长和根长密度的季节变化正相关,但均不显著(P＞0.05).4种因子的综合作用对水曲柳细根各参数的影响均达到了显著水平.不同季节细根生物量、比根长和根长密度的变化,显示出细根在生长季不同时期具有不同的生理生态功能.     

Vertical distribution of fine root density, length density, area index and mean diameter in a Quercus ilex forest

We used minirhizotrons to determine the vertical distribution of fine roots in a holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) forest in a typical Mediterranean area over a 3-year period (June 1994-March 1997). We measured fine root density (number of roots per unit area), fine root length density (length of roots per unit area), fine root area index (area of roots per unit area) and fine root mean diameter. Variables were pooled for each 10-cm depth interval to a depth of 60 cm. Fine roots tended to decrease with increasing depth except between 0 and 10 cm, where the values of all fine root variables were less than in the 10-cm stratum below. Fine root vertical distribution was compared with soil water content and soil temperature at different depths in the soil profile.     

滴灌栽培杨树人工林细根空间分布特征

[目的]为探究滴灌条件下杨树人工林细根的空间分布特征,对大兴区林场滴灌栽培的5年生欧美107杨的细根分布进行研究。[方法]采用根钻法分别在株间、对角和行间方向距树干0.2、0.5、1.0、1.5 m处取样,取样深度为60 cm,每10 cm为1个土层。[结果]滴灌条件下,在不同方向的不同树干距离和土层深度,杨树人工林的细根生物量和根长表现出相似的分布特征,其分布受树干距离、土层及其交互作用的影响显著(P0.05)。滴灌条件下,株间方向的细根总长为12.7 cm,分别是对角和行间方向细根长的1.82倍和2.32倍,上述3个方向取样位点细根总长为25.2 cm,其中的86.4%在滴灌形成的湿润带范围内;0 40 cm土层的细根长占0 60 cm土层细根总长的84.5%。各方向的细根水平分布特征不同,株间方向细根长在距树干0.5 m处最大,为4.2 cm,占该方向细根总长的33.1%,且与其他树干距离处差异显著(P0.05);对角和行间方向细根长在距树干0.2 m处最大,分别为2.7、2.3 cm,占各自方向细根总长的38.1%和41.8%。各方向的细根垂直分布特征不同,株间方向细根长在0 10 cm土层最大,为3.7 cm,占该方向细根总长的29.1%,且与其他土层差异显著(P0.05);对角和行间方向细根长均在10 20 cm土层最大,分别为2.0、1.7 cm,占各自方向细根总长的27.9%和31.0%,与其他土层细根长差异显著(P0.05)。[结论]滴灌条件下,杨树人工林细根的空间分布特征可以采用细根生物量或细根长任一指标来表述。滴灌后形成的连续湿润带导致土壤水分条件的差异使细根在不同方向的水平分布和垂直分布特征不同,细根分布表现为株间对角行间,细根主要分布在湿润带范围内且在0 40 cm土层相对集中分布。依据滴灌栽培杨树人工林细根的水平和垂直分布规律,每次滴灌后应保证水分侧渗到距离树干至少50 cm的范围,下渗的深度至少达到40 cm深,以满足杨树人工林正常生长对水分的需求。本研究结果和结论为确定精准的单次有效灌溉量提供理论依据,从而实现既节水又确保林木正常生长的双重目标。     

Coarse root growth of Veronese poplar trees varies with position on an erodible slope in New Zealand

Poplars are commonly planted on moist, unstable pastoral hill country to prevent or reduce soil erosion, thereby maintaining hillslope integrity and pasture production. Mechanical reinforcement by poplar root systems aids slope stabilisation, particularly when the roots are anchored into the fragipan or underlying rock. Total root length, mass and distribution of coarse roots (≥2 mm diameter) were determined for three Populus deltoides × nigra ‘Veronese’ trees in their 12th growing season after being planted as 3 m poles at upper slope (TU), mid-slope (TM) and lower slope (TL) positions on an erodible hillslope near Palmerston North in the southern North Island. Most of the roots were distributed in the top 40 cm of soil. Depth of penetration of vertical roots was dependent on slope position and limited by the available depth of the soil above a fragipan (0.35 m at the upper slope to 1.4 m at the lower slope). Roots penetrated the fragipan at the upper slope position where the soil depth was shallowest, and at the mid-slope, but not the lower slope position. Total coarse root length was 287.9 m for TU, 1,131.3 m for TM and 1,611.3 m for TL, and total coarse root dry mass (excluding root crown) was 8.15 kg for TU, 38.77 kg for TM and 81.35 kg for TL.     

Rooting patterns and fine root biomass of Pinus pinaster assessed by trench wall and core methods

Variability of fine root (diameter < 2 mm) distribution was investigated in four 55 to 56-year-old Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) stands using a combination of trench wall observations and destructive sampling. Our objectives were to assess patterns of fine root distribution, to estimate tree fine root biomass and to explore interactions with understorey vegetation in a gradient of relevant site conditions. Results showed that root density decreased with soil depth in all stands, and variability appeared to be highest in litter and subsoil layers especially where compacted soil layers occurred. Roots were clustered in patches in the top 0–50 cm of the soil or were present as root channels at greater depths. Cluster number, cluster size and number of root channels were comparable in all four stands. Overall fine root biomass at depths of 0–120 cm ranged from 2.7 to 7.2 Mg ha⁻¹ and was highest for the two driest stands. The use of trench wall records made it possible to reduce the variability of these estimates. Understorey species represented as much as 90% of the total number of fine roots in the upper layers, and the understorey formed a considerable proportion of the total ecosystem biomass, suggesting that understorey species are likely competitors for nutrients in this ecosystem. Further studies should focus on the interaction of the understorey and pine roots and the ecological significance of clustered roots and nutrient distributions.     

Response of root distribution of Haloxylon ammodendron seedlings to irrigation amounts in the hinterlands of the Taklimakan Desert, China

We excavated soil to study root distribution in Haloxylon ammodendron seedlings grown with different amounts of irrigation (35, 24.5 and 14 kg water for each plant each time) in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert. The results indicated that: 1) With decreasing irrigation amounts, the root biomass tended to be distributed in deeper soil layers. Underground biomass had a significantly negative logarithmic relationship with soil depth under different irrigation amounts. 2) Maximum horizontal spread of roots was twice that of vertical root spread, and horizontal distribution of root biomass was similar under all irrigation amounts. 3) Vertical distribution of fine roots was nearly consistent with vertical changes in soil moisture, and all had a unimodal curve; but peak values of fine root biomass in different soil layers varied with different irrigation amounts. The smaller the amount of irrigation, the deeper were the fine roots concentrated in soil layers. 4) Root length, root surface area and root volume all exhibited a unimodal curve under different irrigation amounts; the less the irrigation amount, the deeper the peak values appeared in soil layers. 5) Rootshoot ratio and ratio of vertical root depth to plant height both increased as irrigation amounts decreased. __________ Translated from Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese Version), 2007, 31 (5): 769–776 [译自: 植物生态学报]     

轴向反复荷载下灌木分叉处根段强度及变形特性研究

以神府-东胜煤田采煤塌陷区常见固土植物小叶锦鸡儿和北沙柳为研究对象,采用TY8000伺服控制试验机测定其1～4 mm根径范围内分叉处根段抗拉强度、延伸率等,研究此根段承受反复拉伸后的力学特性.结果表明:2种灌木分叉处根段的极限抗拉强度与根径呈负相关关系,极限抗拉力与根径呈正相关关系;小叶锦鸡儿的平均极限抗拉强度(25....     

Roots under the load of heavy machinery in spruce trees

The effects of the passage of forwarders on soil and damage to spruce root systems along an experimental trail were studied. The site was characterized by medium-textured soil of the pseudogley type under favorable moisture conditions. Due to the passages, the soil was compacted down to a depth of 20 cm, soil porosity was decreased by 5% (volume) and soil aeration was decreased by more than 5%. Substantially higher values of mechanical soil resistance occurred (estimated by penetrometric measurements) in a soil pit situated in a rut after passages. Pressure measured by sensors placed at a depth of 10 cm below the soil surface reached values ranging from 0.09 to 0.11 MPa in plots uncovered with slash and 0.03–0.07 MPa in plots covered with slash after two to four passages, and 0.06–0.07 after six to ten passages. Soil surface deformations occurred in the upper soil layers through tire impression. This resulted in the origin of ruts, whose depth and width was dependent on the type of tires, their load, surface conditions, type and texture of soil, soil moisture and number of passages. Pressure in the soil layers imposed by the tire of a given type, inflation and load changed in relation to depth, ground cover, soil properties and reinforcing components on the soil surface. Sap flow in coarse roots actually treated by a moving heavy load clearly and immediately responded with a sharp increase followed by a similar decrease (peak flow) after several minutes. On average, the flow rate decreased by about 8% after the first treatment compared to the untreated state, and remained the same after passing the peak during the second pass when the maximum load was applied. However, this decrease amounted to about 40%, when compared to the “relative zero flow” after root severing. This indicates serious local damage to the conducting system. Even when loading directly damaged rather small fractions of the total root systems, it opened tree tissues to subsequent fungal infection, whose impact could be very serious in future years. Flow in stem sections oriented in the opposite direction to the trail and the flow in stem sections and root buttresses oriented toward the trail (but where roots were not actually growing below the trail or grew deeper in the soil), neither responded to the treatment or responded insignificantly. Sap flow responded only in surface roots below trails, occurring down to a depth of about 10 cm below the original soil (litter) surface. This occurred only when a significant part of the roots (with the total projected area of treated root branches more then 500 cm²) were under the tires. This indicates the protective ability of soils and also, a possible method of artificial root protection.